Notes - Agri-culture: Reconnecting People, Land and Nature - page 201

from CJD have occurred to 2001. The annual external costs of BSE were
UK£600 million at the end of the 1990s. See NAO, 1998; WHO, 2001. By
mid 2001, there had been 181,000 cases of BSE reported in the UK, 648 in
Ireland, 564 in Portugal, 381 in Switzerland, 323 in France, 81 in Germany, 46
in Spain, and 34 in Belgium. For more on the implications of BSE and lessons
to be learned, see Lobstein et al, 2001; Millstone and van Zwanenberg, 2001.
21 For an excellent review of food crises and the need for new thinking in
food systems, see Lang et al, 2001. See also Waltner-Toews and Lang, 2000.
22 Donald Worster (1993, p18) points out that this was not, of course, the
end of the story. Control through the levees did not stop conflicts between
farmers who wanted water for irrigation, and others who wanted to protect the
natural habitat of waterfowl. The levees also did not stop pesticides and nutrients
from washing off the fields, or stop the emergence of livestock feedlots, with
their massive production of animal wastes.
23 On the effects of changes in the German landscape from flooding, see
van der Ploeg et al, 1999, 2000. Vo-Tong Xuan, rector of Angiang University
in Vietnam, notes similar problems in the Mekong Delta, where farmers have
switched from one crop of floating rice per year to three short duration crops
of modern varieties, which has led to the occurrence of floods on an annual basis.
24 On the effects of water control in the Japanese landscape, in particular
on paddy rice fields, see Minami et al, 1998; Kato et al, 1997; OECD, 2000.
25 On the externalities of Chinese agriculture, see Norse et al, 2000.
26 FAO, 2000a.
27 On the values of wetlands, see Heimlich et al, 1998. For a study on
eutrophication costs, see Pretty et al ( 2002) An Assessment of the Costs of Eutro-
phication . See also Postel and Carpenter (1997) in Daily (ed) Nature's Services ; Ewel
(1997) in Daily (ed) Nature's Services . For a study showing that the costs of creating
wetlands are less than for constructing treatment plants, see Gren, 1995.
28 See Keeny and Muller, 2000.
29 We distinguished between value-loss costs arising from the reduced value
of clean or non-eutrophic (nutrient-enriched) water, and the direct costs incurred
in responding to eutrophication, plus the costs of changing behaviour and
practices in order to meet legal obligations. Value-loss costs, by definition,
represent a loss of existing value, rather than an increase in costs, and are divided
into two categories: use values and non-use values. Use values are associated with
private benefits gained from actual use (or consumption) of ecosystem services,
and can include private-sector uses (eg agriculture, industry), recreation benefits
(eg fishing, water sports, bird watching), education benefits, and general amenity
benefits. Non-use values are of three types: option values, bequest values and
existence values. See Pretty et al, 2001; also Mason, 1996; Environment Agency,
1998.
30 Total fertilizer consumption (nitrogen, phosphate and potassium) for the
world was 138 million tonnes (mt) in the year 2000, comprising 83 mt of
nitrogen, 32 mt of phosphate, and 22 mt of potassium. Nitrogen consumption
in western Europe was 17 mt, in North America 21 mt, in South Asia 21 mt,