‘The Earth is infinitely bountiful’, so say the eco-sceptics. The reality is that society cannot continue to consume natural assets at the current rate. For example, the ecological footprint is the area of land (and sea) taken up to meet the needs of individuals or societies. A citizen of the USA uses 34 acres; in the UK the average per capita is 14 acres; Pakistan, 1.6 acres. Worldwide the average is 4.5 acres due mainly to consumption in the industrialized nations. In ecological terms this means that the Earth is already living beyond its means. For example, in 1962 it took 0.7 years for the annual biological harvest to regenerate. Currently it takes 1.25 years which means the natural capital account is going increasingly ‘into the red’ (Wackernagel, 2003). This provides the context for considering the problems of waste.
The waste being generated by the increasing consumerist ethos of the industrialized nations imposes four penalties:
• Depletion of natural resources;
• Energy involved in disposal;
• Increasing pressure on land for waste disposal;
• Pollution arising from landfill disposal.
There is a temptation to think that when waste is thrown away, that’s the end of it. Far from it. From being our problem it becomes someone else’s. At the same time we may be placing a valuable recyclable resource beyond use. As the natural capital of the Earth is being steadily eroded this is increasingly an ethical, as well as an economic problem. Land is Earth’s most valuable commodity which is being increasingly diminished by building development and landfill sites.
The trouble is that society is schizophrenic. On the one hand the market economy encourages evermore vigorous consumerism which, in turn, increases the rate of obsolescence. Packaging and style upgrades exploit the human drive to be seen to be in the height of fashion. The irony is that our most expensive artefact after a house is the car which is designed for increasingly longer life. More and more cars are being claimed to have passed the million mile mark. So, constant style changes and technological tinkering, rather than functional efficiency, are needed to keep the market buoyant. Nations measure their success by the level of per capita GDP and the extent of annual economic growth. These dictate a nation’s standing in relation to other countries, not least within highly influential bodies like the International Monetary Fund and World Bank.
The consequence of this is that there is growing concern about how to dispose of the escalating quantities of waste. The solution starts in the home. Local councils are under growing pressure to collect waste in segregated bins to facilitate recycling. This should be a major issue in local elections. At the same time householders can do a great deal to help the process along by:
• Re-using items wherever possible, notably plastic bags and containers.
• Composting organic kitchen waste and most garden waste (some plants are not suitable for composting). Some councils offer composting bins at a discount.
• Separating waste at source and, where there are not segregated collection facilities, delivering to appropriate waste bins.
There may be an added incentive to reduce the amounts of household waste. Plans are being considered to levy a charge for each bin collection from a home.
Recycling
We are slowly moving to a position where there will be no such thing as waste, merely transformation. This is what recycling is mainly about.
It is in the sphere of building that recycling has considerable potential, and this applies to renovation as well as new build. There are at least three aspects to this:
• Re-used items for the same or an alternative purpose;
• Refurbished materials;
• Reconstituted materials.
Re-use
Building demolition provides an endless source of items which can be re-used with almost no adaptation. Architectural salvage has become a significant industry. A first point of reference could be The Architectural Salvage Index operated by Hutton and Rostron (www.handr.co.uk/salvage_home.html; Tel: 01483 203221). This index was started in 1977 to recycle building materials and architectural features from buildings which are being demolished or renovated. The index covers
• Building materials: bricks, slates, tiles, stone and timber
• Internal features: panelling, flooring, fireplaces, stairs, windows, doors and central heating items
• External features: a range of garden features and furniture
• Complete structures: barns, conservatories and pergolas.
There is also N1 Architectural Salvage at www.salvoweb.com/ dealers/n1architectural for architectural features and www.salvoweb. com/dealers/v-and-v/index.html for reclaimed bricks, flagstones and other heavy items.
Refurbished materials
As the pace of economic change accelerates, relatively recent buildings are being demolished to make way for more intensive and lucrative site development. This means that many items are being dismantled long before they should be retired offering good opportunities for refurbishment. Radiators, pumps, etc., are obvious candidates. An example of the re-use of radiators from a demolished building is the Conference Centre at the Earth Centre, Doncaster, designed by Bill Dunster Architects.
Reconstituted materials
In refurbishment schemes it is likely that there will be some element requiring the use of concrete. This is normally an energy-intensive material due to the mining of aggregate and the production of cement. Normal concrete uses about 323 kg/m3 of cement. This figure can be substantially reduced by the introduction of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) to provide additional bulk. This can reduce the cement content by 70 per cent in mass concrete for bases, etc. The only drawback is that the curing time is increased from the normal 28 days to 56 days. In many situations this is not a problem.
The upgrading of the railways has resulted in a good supply of timber railway sleepers – an excellent source of recycled timber that can be put to a range of uses, particularly in gardens.
In the Earth Centre at Doncaster, timber supports for the main structure comprise recovered telegraph poles discovered accidentally in a lorry park!
Waste glass has found a new incarnation as decorative tiles and blocks. Crushed and mixed with resin, it is available in a wide variety of colours and textures. In translucent form it can be back-lit as illuminated flooring or walling (Figure 13.1). It is an ideal cladding material. (See Crystal Paving Ltd of Ecclesfield Sheffield, web address: www.crystal-paving.co.uk; Tel: 0870 770 6189).
Figure 13.1 Crystal Paving floors: A courtyard between flats in a housing development at Port Marine, Portishead, UK.
The mountains of waste slate in North Wales are slowly being ground into powder form to be transformed into resin-based building materials which can receive a high polish. As wall tiles they have the appearance of polished granite at a fraction of the cost.
In topic 2, there was reference to cellulose-based insulation derived from newsprint. It is particularly appropriate for loft insulation. Warmcel-RF is produced by Excel Fibre Technology, Ebbw Vale (www.house-builder.co.uk).
Further sources of information
National Recycling Forum (UK), Buy Recycled Database and Guide (www.nrf.org.uk/buy-recycled/index.html). This is a regularly updated database of recycled-content products and materials. It provides details of over 1000 products available in the UK. For each of the products the database provides information on:
• Type of reclaimed material in the product, e.g. paper, metal, etc.
• Percentage of post-consumer waste
• Percentage of other recovered material, e.g. production scrap
• Brand names
• Details of suppliers, including minimum amount which can be supplied
• Other technical information.
Waste and Resources Action Programme (UK) (WRAP), Recycled Materials and Products Information Portal (www.wrap.org.uk). WRAP aims to find the best available information on UK reprocessors and processors of recycled materials. It offers to provide the best information and guidance sources on where to buy recycled products and materials.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (UK) (CIRIA), The Reclaimed and Recycled Construction Materials Handbook (www.ciria.org.uk). The handbook provides guidance and information on using reclaimed and recycled materials. It is wide in its scope and is aimed primarily at architects, builders and clients.
Faber Maunsell’s Sustainable Development Group and Ecological Development (UK), Ecoconstruction Database (www.ecoconstruc-tion.org). The site contains guidance on choosing and specifying recycled products and materials, including those relevant to home owners. The site is sponsored by the Housing Corporation and SITA, and offers product search categories, rating method and case studies. There is information on:
• Recycled materials used in a product
• The manufacturing process including any use of toxic materials
• The capacity of the product to be recycled in the pre- and post-consumer stages
• Emissions during manufacture
• Percentage recycled content
• Place of manufacture.
The database has a significant number of products with a recycled content of between 80 and 100 per cent.
As EU regulations regarding the disposal of waste and the recycling of materials become more stringent, it will become increasingly economical, as well as ethical, to make maximum use of recycled and reconstituted materials. There is growing awareness that the Earth has a strictly limited carrying capacity and humans have already exceeded the power of the Earth to regenerate in many areas.
Main points
• Re-use items wherever possible.
• Compost organic kitchen waste.
• If there is no local collection facility for separated waste, deliver to appropriate collection points.
• Where possible use materials which have been recycled, refurbished or reconstituted.
• Ensure that waste from any refurbishment building work is minimized.
• Such waste as there is should be recycled or reconstituted wherever possible.
