Roman Emperors
Overlapping reigns denote corulers. Diocletian (284-305) laid the foundation for the Byzantine Empire in the East when he appointed Maximian (286-305) to rule over the Western portion of the empire. Rome thus remained a unified state but was divided administratively. Theodosius I (379-395) was the last emperor to rule over a unified Roman Empire. When he died, Rome split into Eastern and Western empires. For a complete list of the Eastern emperors after the fall of Rome, see “Byzantine Empire.”
|
REIGN |
BYNAME |
FULL NAME |
|
27 BC-AD 14 |
Augustus |
Caesar Augustus |
|
14-37 |
Tiberius |
Tiberius Caesar Augustus |
|
37-41 |
Caligula |
Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus |
|
41-54 |
Claudius |
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus |
|
54-68 |
Nero |
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus |
|
68-69 |
Galba |
Servius Galba Caesar Augustus |
|
69 |
Otho |
Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus |
|
69 |
Vitellius |
Aulus Vitellius Germanicus |
|
69-79 |
Vespasian |
Caesar Vespasianus Augustus |
|
79-81 |
Titus |
Titus Vespasianus Augustus |
|
81-96 |
Domitian |
Caesar Domitianus Augustus |
|
96-98 |
Nerva |
Nerva Caesar Augustus |
|
98-117 |
Trajan |
Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus |
|
117-138 |
Hadrian |
Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus |
|
138-161 |
Antoninus Pius |
Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius |
|
161-180 |
Marcus Aurelius |
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus |
|
161-169 |
Lucius Verus |
Lucius Aurelius Verus |
|
177-192 |
Commodus |
Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus |
|
193 |
Pertinax |
Publius Helvius Pertinax |
|
193 |
Didius Julianus |
Marcus Didius Severus Julianus |
|
REIGN |
BYNAME |
FULL NAME |
|
193-211 |
Septimius Severus |
Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax |
|
198-217 |
Caracalla |
Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus |
|
209-212 |
Geta |
Publius Septimius Geta |
|
217-218 |
Macrinus |
Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus |
|
218-222 |
Elagabalus |
Sacerdos dei invicti solis Elagabali Marcus Aurelius Antoninus |
|
222-235 |
Alexander Severus |
Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander |
|
235-238 |
Maximin |
Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus |
|
238 |
Gordian I |
Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus |
|
238 |
Gordian II |
Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus |
|
238 |
Maximus |
Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus |
|
238 |
Balbinus |
Decius Caelius Calvinus Balbinus |
|
238-244 |
Gordian III |
Marcus Antonius Gordianus |
|
244-249 |
Philip |
|
|
249-251 |
Decius |
Galus Messius Quintus Trianus Decius |
|
251 |
Hostilian |
Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus |
|
251-253 |
Gallus |
Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus |
|
253 |
Aemilian |
Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus |
|
253-260 |
Valerian |
Publius Licinius Valerianus |
|
253-268 |
Gallienus |
Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus |
|
268-270 |
Claudius II Gothicus |
Marcus Aurelius Valerius Claudius |
|
269-270 |
Quintillus |
Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus |
|
270-275 |
Aurelian |
Lucius Domitius Aurelianus |
|
275-276 |
Tacitus |
Marcus Claudius Tacitus |
|
276 |
Florian |
Marcus Annius Florianus |
|
276-282 |
Probus |
Marcus Aurelius Probus |
|
282-283 |
Carus |
Marcus Aurelius Carus |
|
283-285 |
Carinus |
Marcus Aurelius Carinus |
|
283-284 |
Numerian |
Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numerianus |
|
284-3051 |
Diocletian |
Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus |
|
286-3052 |
Maximian |
Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Heraclius |
|
305-3111 |
Galerius |
Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus |
|
305-3062 |
Constantius I Chlorus |
Flavius Valerius Constantius |
|
306-3072 |
Severus |
Flavius Valerius Severus |
|
306-3122 |
Maxentius |
Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius |
|
308-3241 |
Licinius |
Valerius Licinianus Licinius |
|
312-3372 |
Constantine I |
Flavius Valerius Constantinus |
|
337-3402 |
Constantine II |
Flavius Claudius [or Julius] Constantinus |
|
337-3502 |
Constans I |
Flavius Julius Constans |
|
337-3612 |
Constantius II |
Flavius Julius [or Valerius] Constantius |
|
350-3532 |
Magnentius |
Flavius Magnus Magnentius |
|
361-3632 |
Julian |
Flavius Claudius Julianus |
|
363-3642 |
Jovian |
Flavius Jovianus |
|
364-3752 |
Valentinian I |
Flavius Valentinianus |
|
364-3781 |
Valens |
Flavius Valens |
|
365-3661 |
Procopius |
|
|
375-3832 |
Gratian |
Flavius Gratianus Augustus |
|
375-3922 |
Valentinian II |
Flavius Valentinianus |
|
379-3952 |
Theodosius I |
Flavius Theodosius |
|
395-4081 |
Arcadius |
Flavius Arcadius |
|
395-4232 |
Honorius |
Flavius Honorius |
|
408-4501 |
Theodosius II |
|
|
4212 |
Constantius III |
|
|
425-4552 |
Valentinian III |
Flavius Placidius Valentinianus |
|
450-4571 |
Marcian |
Marcianus |
|
4552 |
Petronius Maximus |
Flavius Ancius Petronius Maximus |
|
455-4562 |
Avitus |
Flavius Maccilius Eparchus Avitus |
|
457-4741 |
Leo I |
Leo Thrax Magnus |
|
457-4612 |
Majorian |
Julius Valerius Majorianus |
|
461-4672 |
Libius Severus |
Libius Severianus Severus |
|
467-4722 |
Anthemius |
Procopius Anthemius |
|
4722 |
Olybrius |
Anicius Olybrius |
|
473-4742 |
Glycerius |
|
|
474-4752 |
Julius Nepos |
|
|
4741 |
Leo II |
|
|
474-4911 |
Zeno |
|
|
475-4762 |
Romulus Augustulus |
Flavius Momyllus Romulus Augustulus |
|
SOVEREIGN DYNASTY OR HI Kings of Wessex (West Saxons) |
OUSE REIGN |
SOVEREIGN DYNASTY OR H Sovereigns of England |
OUSE REIGN |
||
|
Egbert |
Saxon |
802-839 |
Henry VI (restored) |
Plantagenet: |
1470-71 |
|
Aethelwulf (Ethelwulf) |
Saxon 839-856/858 |
|
Lancaster |
|
|
|
Aethelbald (Ethelbald) |
Saxon 855/856-860 |
Edward IV (restored) |
Plantagenet: |
1471-83 |
|
|
Aethelberht (Ethelbert) |
Saxon 860-865/866 |
|
York |
|
|
|
Aethelred I (Ethelred) |
Saxon 865/866-871 |
Edward V |
Plantagenet: |
1483 |
|
|
Alfred the Great |
Saxon |
871-899 |
York |
||
|
Edward the Elder |
Saxon |
899-924 |
Richard III |
Plantagenet: vr. H. |
1483-85 |
|
Sovereigns of England |
Henry VII |
York Tudor |
1483-1509 |
||
|
Athelstan1 |
Saxon |
925-939 |
Henry VIII |
Tudor |
1509-47 |
|
Edmund I |
Saxon |
939-946 |
Edward VI |
Tudor |
1547-53 |
|
Eadred (Edred) |
Saxon |
946-955 |
Mary I |
Tudor |
1553-58 |
|
Eadwig (Edwy) |
Saxon |
955-959 |
Elizabeth I |
Tudor |
1558-1603 |
|
Edgar |
Saxon |
959-975 |
|||
|
Edward the Martyr |
Saxon |
975-978 |
Sovereigns of Great Britain and the United |
||
|
Ethelred II the Unready |
Saxon |
978-1013 |
Kingdom2,3 |
||
|
(Aethelred) |
James I (VI of Scotland)2 |
Stuart |
1603-25 |
||
|
Sweyn Forkbeard |
Danish |
1013-14 |
Charles I |
Stuart |
1625-49 |
|
Ethelred II the Unready |
Saxon |
1014-16 |
|||
|
(restored) |
Commonwealth |
||||
|
Edmund II Ironside |
Saxon |
1016 |
Oliver Cromwell, Lord |
1653-58 |
|
|
Canute |
Danish |
1016-35 |
Protector |
||
|
Harold I Harefoot |
Danish |
1035-40 |
Richard Cromwell, Lord |
1658-59 |
|
|
Hardecanute |
Danish |
1040-42 |
Protector |
||
|
Edward the Confessor |
Saxon |
1042-66 |
|||
|
Harold II |
Saxon |
1066 |
Sovereigns of Great Britain and the United |
||
|
William I the Conqueror |
Norman |
1066-87 |
Kingdom (restored) |
||
|
William II |
Norman |
1087-1100 |
Charles II |
Stuart |
1660-85 |
|
Henry I |
Norman |
1100-35 |
James II |
Stuart |
1685-88 |
|
Stephen |
Blois |
1135-54 |
William III and Mary II4 |
Orange/ |
1689-1702 |
|
Henry II |
Plantagenet |
1154-89 |
Stuart |
||
|
Richard I |
Plantagenet |
1189-99 |
Anne |
Stuart |
1702-14 |
|
John |
Plantagenet |
1199-1216 |
George I |
Hanover |
1714-27 |
|
Henry III |
Plantagenet |
1216-72 |
George II |
Hanover |
1727-60 |
|
Edward I |
Plantagenet |
1272-1307 |
George III3 |
Hanover |
1760-1820 |
|
Edward II |
Plantagenet |
1307-27 |
George IV5 |
Hanover |
1820-30 |
|
Edward III |
Plantagenet |
1327-77 |
William IV |
Hanover |
1830-37 |
|
Richard II |
Plantagenet |
1377-99 |
Victoria |
Hanover |
1837-1901 |
|
Henry IV |
Plantagenet: |
1399-1413 |
Edward VII |
Saxe-Coburg- |
1901-10 |
|
Lancaster |
Gotha |
||||
|
Henry V |
Plantagenet: |
1413-22 |
George V6 |
Windsor |
1910-36 |
|
Lancaster |
Edward VIII7 |
Windsor |
1936 |
||
|
Henry VI |
Plantagenet: |
1422-61 |
George VI |
Windsor |
1936-52 |
|
|
Lancaster |
|
Elizabeth II |
Windsor |
1952- |
|
Edward IV |
Plantagenet: |
1461-70 |
|
|
|
|
|
York |
|
|
|
|
1Athelstan was king of Wessex and the first king of all England. 2James VI of Scotland became also James I of England in 1603. Upon accession to the English throne he styled himself”King of Great Britain” and was so proclaimed. Legally, however, he and his successors held separate English and Scottish kingships until the Act of Union of 1707, when the two kingdoms were united as the Kingdom of Great Britain. 3The United Kingdom was formed on 1 Jan 1801, with the union of Great Britain and Ireland. After 1801 George III was styled “King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.” 4William and Mary, as husband and wife, reigned jointly until Mary’s death in 1694. William then reigned alone until his own death in 1702. 5George IV was regent from 5 Feb 1811. 6In 1917, during World War I, George V changed the name of his house from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor. 7Edward VIII succeeded upon the death of his father, George V, on 20 Jan 1936, but abdicated on 11 Dec 1936, before coronation.
Rulers of Scotland
Knowledge about the early Scottish kings (until Malcolm II) is slim and is partly based on traditional lists. The dating of reigns is thus inexact.
|
RULER |
REIGN |
|
Aed (Aodh) |
877-878 |
|
Eochaid (Eocha) and Giric (Ciric)1 |
878-889 |
|
Donald II |
889-900 |
|
RULER |
REIGN |
|
Kenneth I MacAlpin |
843-858 |
|
Donald I |
858-862 |
|
Constantine I |
862-877 |
|
RULER |
REIGN |
RULER |
REIGN |
|
Constantine II |
900-943 |
Alexander III |
1249-86 |
|
Malcolm I |
943-954 |
Margaret, Maid of Norway |
1286-90 |
|
Indulf |
954-962 |
|
|
|
Dub |
962-966 |
Interregnum |
1290-92 |
|
Culen |
966-971 |
|
|
|
Kenneth II |
971-995 |
John de Balliol |
1292-96 |
|
Constantine III |
995-997 |
|
|
|
Kenneth III |
997-1005 |
Interregnum |
1296-1306 |
|
Malcolm II |
1005-34 |
|
|
|
Duncan I |
1034-40 |
Robert I the Bruce |
1306-29 |
|
Macbeth |
1040-57 |
David II |
1329-71 |
|
Lulach |
1057-58 |
|
|
|
Malcolm III Canmore |
1058-93 |
House of Stewart (Stuart)2 |
|
|
Donald Bane (Donalbane) |
1093-94 |
Robert II |
1371-90 |
|
Duncan II |
1093-94 |
Robert III |
1390-1406 |
|
Donald Bane (restored) |
1094-97 |
James I |
1406-37 |
|
Edgar |
1097-1107 |
James II |
1437-60 |
|
Alexander I |
1107-24 |
James III |
1460-88 |
|
David I |
1124-53 |
James IV |
1488-1513 |
|
Malcolm IV |
1153-65 |
James V |
1513-42 |
|
William I the Lion |
1165-1214 |
Mary, Queen of Scots |
1542-67 |
|
Alexander II |
1214-49 |
James VI3 |
1567-1625 |
1Eochaid may have been a minor and Giric his guardian, or Giric may have been a usurper. Both appear in the lists of kings for the period. 2″Stewart” was the original spelling for the Scottish family, but during the 16th century French influence led to the adoption of the spelling Stuart (orSteuart), owing to the absence of the letter “w” in the French alphabet. 3James VI of Scotland became also James I of England in 1603. Upon accession to the English throne he styled himself “King of Great Britain” and was so proclaimed. Legally, however, he and his successors held separate English and Scottish kingships until the Act of Union of 1707, when the two kingdoms were united as the Kingdom of Great Britain.
British Prime Ministers
The origin of the term prime minister and the question of to whom it should originally be applied have long been issues of scholarly and political debate. Although the term was used as early as the reign of Queen Anne (1702-14), it acquired wider currency during the reign of George II (1727-60), when it began to be used as a term of reproach toward Robert Walpole. The title prime minister did not become official until 1905, to refer to the leader of a government.
.
|
PRIME MINISTER |
PARTY |
TERM |
|
Robert Walpole |
Whig |
1721-42 |
|
Spencer Compton |
Whig |
1742-43 |
|
Henry Pelham |
Whig |
1743-54 |
|
Thomas Pelham-Holles |
Whig |
1754-56 |
|
William Cavendish |
Whig |
1756-57 |
|
Thomas Pelham-Holles |
Whig |
1757-62 |
|
John Stuart |
|
1762-63 |
|
George Grenville |
|
1763-65 |
|
Charles Watson Went- |
Whig |
1765-66 |
|
worth |
|
|
|
William Pitt |
|
1766-68 |
|
Augustus Henry Fitzroy |
|
1768-70 |
|
Frederick North |
|
1770-82 |
|
Charles Watson Went- |
Whig |
1782 |
|
worth |
|
|
|
William Petty-Fitzmaurice |
|
1782-83 |
|
William Henry Cavendish- |
Whig |
1783 |
|
Bentinck |
|
|
|
William Pitt |
Tory |
1783-1801 |
|
Henry Addington |
Tory |
1801-04 |
|
William Pitt |
Tory |
1804-06 |
|
William Wyndham Gren-ville |
|
1806-07 |
Before the development of the Conservative and Liberal parties in the mid-19th century, parties in Britain were, for the most part, simply alliances of prominent groups or aristocratic families. The designations Whig and Tory tend often to be approximate. In all cases, the party designation is that of the prime minister; he or she might lead a coalition government, as did David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill (in his first term).
|
PRIME MINISTER |
PARTY |
TERM |
|
William Henry Cavendish- |
Whig |
1807-09 |
|
Bentinck |
|
|
|
Spencer Perceval |
Tory |
1809-12 |
|
Robert Banks Jenkinson |
Tory |
1812-27 |
|
George Canning |
Tory |
1827 |
|
Frederick John Robinson |
Tory |
1827-28 |
|
Arthur Wellesley |
Tory |
1828-30 |
|
Charles Grey |
Whig |
1830-34 |
|
William Lamb |
Whig |
1834 |
|
Arthur Wellesley |
Tory |
1834 |
|
Robert Peel |
Tory |
1834-35 |
|
William Lamb |
Whig |
1835-41 |
|
Robert Peel |
Conservative |
1841-46 |
|
John Russell |
Whig-Liberal |
1846-52 |
|
Edward Geoffrey Stanley |
Conservative |
1852 |
|
George Hamilton-Gordon |
1852-55 |
|
|
Henry John Temple |
Liberal |
1855-58 |
|
Edward Geoffrey Stanley |
Conservative |
1858-59 |
|
Henry John Temple |
Liberal |
1859-65 |
|
John Russell |
Liberal |
1865-66 |
|
Edward Geoffrey Stanley |
Conservative |
1866-68 |
|
Benjamin Disraeli |
Conservative |
1868 |
|
William Ewart Gladstone |
Liberal |
1868-74 |
|
|
British Prime Ministers (continued) |
|
|
||
|
PRIME MINISTER |
PARTY |
TERM |
PRIME MINISTER |
PARTY |
TERM |
|
Benjamin Disraeli |
Conservative |
1874-80 |
Ramsay Macdonald |
Labour |
1929-35 |
|
William Ewart Gladstone |
Liberal |
1880-85 |
Stanley Baldwin |
Conservative |
1935-37 |
|
Robert Cecil |
Conservative |
1885-86 |
Neville Chamberlain |
Conservative |
1937-40 |
|
William Ewart Gladstone |
Liberal |
1886 |
Winston Churchill |
Conservative |
1940-45 |
|
Robert Cecil |
Conservative |
1886-92 |
Clement Attlee |
Labour |
1945-51 |
|
William Ewart Gladstone |
Liberal |
1892-94 |
Winston Churchill |
Conservative |
1951-55 |
|
Archibald Philip Primrose |
Liberal |
1894-95 |
Anthony Eden |
Conservative |
1955-57 |
|
Robert Cecil |
Conservative |
1895-1902 |
Harold Macmillan |
Conservative |
1957-63 |
|
Arthur James Balfour |
Conservative |
1902-05 |
Alec Douglas-Home |
Conservative |
1963-64 |
|
Henry Campbell-Banner- |
Liberal |
1905-08 |
Harold Wilson |
Labour |
1964-70 |
|
man |
|
|
Edward Heath |
Conservative |
1970-74 |
|
H.H. Asquith |
Liberal |
1908-16 |
Harold Wilson |
Labour |
1974-76 |
|
David Lloyd George |
Liberal |
1916-22 |
James Callaghan |
Labour |
1976-79 |
|
Bonar Law |
Conservative |
1922-23 |
Margaret Thatcher |
Conservative |
1979-90 |
|
Stanley Baldwin |
Conservative |
1923-24 |
John Major |
Conservative |
1990-97 |
|
Ramsay Macdonald |
Labour |
1924 |
Tony Blair |
Labour |
1997-2007 |
|
Stanley Baldwin |
Conservative |
1924-29 |
Gordon Brown |
Labour |
2007- |
|
|
|
Rulers of France |
|
|
|
|
RULER |
|
REIGN |
RULER |
|
REIGN |
|
Carolingian dynasty |
|
|
Valois dynasty |
|
|
|
Pippin III the Short |
|
751-768 |
Philip VI (Philippe) |
|
1328-50 |
|
Charles I (Charlemagne, Kingdom of the |
768-814 |
John II (Jean) |
|
1350-64 |
|
|
Franks) |
|
|
Charles V |
|
1364-80 |
|
Louis I (Kingdom of the Franks) |
814-840 |
Charles VI |
|
1380-1422 |
|
|
civil war |
|
840-843 |
Charles VII |
|
1422-61 |
|
Charles II (Kingdom of the West Franks) |
843-877 |
Louis XI |
|
1461-83 |
|
|
Louis II (Kingdom of the West Franks) |
877-879 |
Charles VIII |
|
1483-98 |
|
|
Louis III (Kingdom of the West Franks) |
879-882 |
|
|
|
|
|
Carloman (Kingdom of the West Franks) |
879-884 |
Valois dynasty (Orleans branch) |
|
||
|
Charles (III) (Charles III, Holy Roman |
884-887 |
Louis XII |
|
1498-1515 |
|
|
Empire) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Valois dynasty (Angouleme branch) |
|
|
|
Robertian (Capetian) dynasty |
|
Francis I (Frangois) |
|
1515-47 |
|
|
Eudes |
|
888-898 |
Henry II (Henri) |
|
1547-59 |
|
|
|
|
Francis II (Frangois) |
|
1559-60 |
|
Carolingian dynasty |
|
|
Charles IX |
|
1560-74 |
|
Charles III |
893/898-923 |
Henry III (Henri) |
|
574-89 |
|
|
Robertian (Capetian) dynasty |
|
House of Bourbo |
|
|
|
|
Robert I |
|
922-923 |
Henry IV (Henri) |
|
1589-1610 |
|
Rudolf (Raoul, or Rodolphe) |
923-936 |
Louis XIII |
|
1610-43 |
|
|
|
|
|
Louis XIV |
|
1643-1715 |
|
Carolingian dynasty |
|
|
Louis XV |
|
1715-74 |
|
Louis IV |
|
936-954 |
Louis XVI |
|
1774-92 |
|
Lothair (Lothaire) |
|
954-986 |
Louis (XVII) |
|
1793-95 |
|
Louis V |
|
986-987 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
First Republic |
|
|
|
Capetian dynasty |
|
|
National Convention |
|
1792-95 |
|
Hugh Capet (Hugues Capet) |
987-996 |
Directorate |
|
1795-99 |
|
|
Robert II |
|
996-1031 |
Consulate (Napoleon Bonaparte) |
1799-1804 |
|
|
Henry I (Henri) |
|
1031-60 |
|
|
|
|
Philip I (Philippe) |
|
1060-1108 |
First Empire (emperors) |
|
|
|
Louis VI |
|
1108-37 |
Napoleon I (Napoleon Bonaparte) 1804-14, 1815 |
||
|
Louis VII |
|
1137-80 |
Napoleon (II) |
|
1815 |
|
Philip II (Philippe) |
|
1180-1223 |
|
|
|
|
Louis VIII |
|
1223-26 |
House of Bourbon |
|
|
|
Louis IX (Saint Louis) |
|
1226-70 |
Louis XVIII |
|
1814-24 |
|
Philip III (Philippe) |
|
1270-85 |
Charles X |
|
1824-30 |
|
Philip IV (Philippe) |
|
1285-1314 |
|
|
|
|
Louis X |
|
1314-16 |
House of Orleans |
|
|
|
John I (Jean) |
|
1316 |
Louis-Philippe |
|
1830-48 |
|
Philip V (Philippe) |
|
1316-22 |
|
|
|
|
Charles IV |
|
1322-28 |
Second Republic (president) Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte |
1848-52 |
|
|
RULER |
REIGN |
RULER |
REIGN |
|
Second Empire (emperor) |
|
Third Republic (presidents) (continued) |
|
|
Napoleon III (Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte) |
1852-70 |
Albert Lebrun |
1932-40 |
|
Third Republic (presidents) |
|
French State (Etat Franpais, or Vichy France) |
|
|
Adolphe Thiers |
1871-73 |
Philippe Petain |
1940-44 |
|
Marie-Edme-Patrice-Maurice, comte de |
1873-79 |
|
|
|
Mac-Mahon, duc de Magenta |
|
Provisional government |
1944-47 |
|
Jules Grevy |
1879-87 |
|
|
|
Sadi Carnot |
1887-94 |
Fourth Republic (presidents) |
|
|
Jean Casimir-Perier |
1894-95 |
Vincent Auriol |
1947-54 |
|
Felix Faure |
1895-99 |
Rene Coty |
1954-59 |
|
Emile Loubet 1899-1906 |
|
|
|
|
Armand Fallieres |
1906-13 |
Fifth Republic (presidents) |
|
|
Raymond Poincare |
1913-20 |
Charles de Gaulle |
1959-69 |
|
Paul Deschanel |
1920 |
Georges Pompidou |
1969-74 |
|
Alexandre Millerand |
1920-24 |
Valery Giscard d’Estaing |
1974-81 |
|
Gaston Doumergue |
1924-31 |
Frangois Mitterrand |
1981-95 |
|
Paul Doumer |
1931-32 |
Jacques Chirac |
1995-2007 |
|
|
|
Nicolas Sarkozy |
2007- |
|
RULER |
REIGN |
|
House of Habsburg |
|
|
Charles I (Carlos) |
1516-56 |
|
Philip II (Felipe) |
1556-98 |
|
Philip III (Felipe) |
1598-1621 |
|
Philip IV (Felipe) |
1621-65 |
|
Charles II (Carlos) |
1665-1700 |
|
House of Bourbon (Borbon) |
|
|
Philip V (Felipe) |
1700-24 |
|
Louis (Luis) |
1724 |
|
Philip V (2nd time) |
1724-46 |
|
Ferdinand VI (Fernando) |
1746-59 |
|
Charles III (Carlos) |
1759-88 |
|
Charles IV (Carlos) |
1788-1808 |
|
Ferdinand VII (Fernando) |
1808 |
|
House of Bonaparte |
|
|
Joseph (Jose) |
1808-13 |
|
House of Bourbon (Borbon) |
|
|
Ferdinand VII (2nd time) |
1814-33 |
|
RULER House of Bourbon (Borbon) (continued) Isabella II (Isabel) |
REIGN 1833-68 |
|
Interregnum |
1868-70 |
|
House of Savoy Amadeus I (Amadeo) |
1870-73 |
|
Republic |
1873-74 |
|
House of Bourbon (Borbon) Alfonso XII Alfonso XIII |
1874-85 1886-1931 |
|
Republic |
1931-39 |
|
Nationalist Regime Francisco Franco |
1939-75 |
|
House of Bourbon (Borbon) Juan Carlos |
1975- |
On 25 Jul 1806 the Confederation of the Rhine was founded, with Karl Theodor von Dalberg as prince primate (1806-13). After the dissolution of the Rhine Confederation, there was no true central power until 1815, when the German Confederation was founded. In 1867 the governing structure became the North German Confederation, and in 1871 the German Reich. For rulers of Germany before the Confederation of the Rhine, see Holy Roman Emperors.
|
RULER |
REIGN OR TERM |
|
Emperors |
|
|
Hohenzollern dynasty |
|
|
Wilhelm I |
1871-88 |
|
Friedrich III |
1888 |
|
Wilhelm II |
1888-1918 |
|
Presidents |
|
|
Richard Muller |
1918 |
|
Robert Leinert |
1918-19 |
|
Wilhelm Pfannkuch |
1919 |
|
Eduard David |
1919 |
|
Friedrich Ebert |
1919-25 |
|
RULER |
REIGN OR TERM |
|
Presidents |
|
|
Paul von Hindenburg |
1925-34 |
|
Adolf Hitler (Fuhrer) |
1934-45 |
|
Karl Donitz |
1945 |
|
Chancellors |
|
|
Otto Furst von Bismarck |
1871-90 |
|
Leo Graf von Caprivi |
1890-94 |
|
Chlodwig Furst zu Hohenlohe- |
1894-1900 |
|
Schillingsfurst |
|
|
Bernhard Graf Furst von Bulow |
1900-09 |
|
Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg |
1909-17 |
|
RULER |
REIGN OR TERM |
|
Chancellors |
|
|
Georg Michaelis |
1917 |
|
Georg Graf von Hertling |
1917-18 |
|
Maximilian Prinzvon Baden |
1918 |
|
Friedrich Ebert |
1918 |
|
Philipp Scheidemann |
1919 |
|
Gustav Bauer |
1919-20 |
|
Wolfgang Kapp (in rebellion) |
1920 |
|
Hermann Muller |
1920 |
|
Konstantin Fehrenbach |
1920-21 |
|
Joseph Wirth |
1921-22 |
|
Wilhelm Cuno |
1922-23 |
|
Gustav Stresemann |
1923 |
|
RULER |
REIGN OR TERM |
|
Chancellors |
|
|
Wilhelm Marx |
1923-24 |
|
Hans Luther |
1925-26 |
|
Wilhelm Marx |
1926-28 |
|
Hermann Muller |
1928-30 |
|
Heinrich Bruning |
1930-32 |
|
Franz von Papen |
1932 |
|
Kurt von Schleicher |
1932-33 |
|
Adolf Hitler |
1933-45 |
|
Joseph Goebbels |
1945 |
|
Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk |
1945 |
|
(chairman of interim government) |
|
|
Allied occupation 1945-49 German Democratic Republic (East Germany)1 Presidents Chairmen of the Council of State |
|
Wilhelm Pieck 1949-60 Erich Honecker 1976-89 |
|
Egon Krenz 1989 |
|
Chairmen of the Council of State Sabine Bergmann-Pohl 1990 Walter Ulbricht 1960-73 |
|
Willi Stoph 1973-76 |
|
Presidents |
Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)1 Chancellors |
|
|
Theodor Heuss |
1949-59 Konrad Adenauer |
1949-63 |
|
Heinrich Lubke |
1959-69 Ludwig Erhard |
1963-66 |
|
Gustav Heinemann |
1969-74 Kurt Georg Kiesinger |
1966-69 |
|
Walter Scheel |
1974-79 Willy Brandt |
1969-74 |
|
Karl Carstens |
1979-84 Helmut Schmidt |
1974-82 |
|
Richard von Weizsacker |
1984-94 Helmut Kohl |
1982-98 |
|
Roman Herzog |
1994-99 Gerhard Schroder |
1998-2005 |
|
Johannes Rau Horst Kohler |
1999-2004 Angela Merkel 2004- |
2005- |
1After World War II, Germany was split into four occupational zones, governed by the French, British, American, and Soviet powers. The Western zones were merged and, on 23 May 1949, became the independent Federal Republic of Germany. On 7 October of the same year, the Soviet zone was proclaimed the German Democratic Republic. On 3 Oct 1990, the latter was incorporated into the Federal Republic of Germany.
The Holy Roman Empire encompassed a varying complex of lands in Western and Central Europe. Ruled over by Frankish and then German kings, the empire officially dissolved on 6 Aug 1806, when Francis II resigned his title.
|
EMPEROR Carolingian dynasty Charlemagne (Charles I) |
REIGN 800-814 |
|
Louis I |
814-840 |
|
Civil War |
840-843 |
|
Lothair I |
843-855 |
|
Louis II |
855-875 |
|
Charles II Interregnum |
875-877 877-881 |
|
Charles III |
881-887 |
|
Interregnum House of Spoleto Guy |
887-891 891-894 |
|
Lambert |
894-898 |
|
Carolingian dynasty |
|
|
Arnulf |
896-899 |
|
Louis III |
901-905 |
|
EMPEROR House of Franconia Conrad I |
REIGN 911-918 |
|
Carolingian dynasty Berengar |
915-924 |
|
House of Saxony (Liudolfings) Henry I |
919-936 |
|
Otto I |
936-973 |
|
Otto II |
973-983 |
|
Otto III |
983-1002 |
|
Henry II |
1002-24 |
|
Salian dynasty |
|
|
Conrad II |
1024-39 |
|
Henry III |
1039-56 |
|
EMPEROR Salian dynasty Henry IV Rival claimants: Rudolf Hermann Conrad Henry V |
REIGN 1056-1106 1077-80 1081-93 1093-1101 1105/06-25 |
|
House of Supplinburg Lothair II |
1125-37 |
|
House of Hohenstaufen Conrad III Frederick I (Barbarossa) Henry VI Philip |
1138-52 1152-90 1190-97 1198-1208 |
|
Welf dynasty Otto IV |
1198-1214 |
|
House of Hohenstaufen Frederick II Rival claimants: Henry (VII) Henry Raspe William of Holland Conrad IV Great Interregnum Richard Alfonso (Alfonso X of Castile) |
1215-50 1220-35 1246-47 1247-56 1250-54 1254-73 1257-72 1257-75 |
|
House of Habsburg Rudolf I |
1273-91 |
|
House of Nassau Adolf |
1292-98 |
|
House of Habsburg Albert I |
1298-1308 |
|
House of Luxembourg Henry VII |
1308-13 |
|
EMPEROR House of Habsburg Frederick (III) |
REIGN 1314-26 |
|
House of Wittelsbach Louis IV |
1314-46 |
|
House of Luxembourg Charles IV Wenceslas |
1346-78 1378-1400 |
|
House of Wittelsbach Rupert |
1400-10 |
|
House of Luxembourg Jobst Sigismund |
1410-11 1410-37 |
|
House of Habsburg Albert II Frederick III Maximilian I Charles V Ferdinand I Maximilian II Rudolf II Matthias Ferdinand II Ferdinand III Leopold I Joseph I Charles VI |
1438-39 1440-93 1493-1519 1519-56 1556-64 1564-76 1576-1612 1612-19 1619-37 1637-57 1658-1705 1705-11 1711-40 |
|
House of Wittelsbach Charles VII |
1742-45 |
|
House of Habsburg Francis I Joseph II Leopold II Francis II |
1745-65 1765-90 1790-92 1792-1806 |
|
RULER |
REIGN |
|
Princes and Grand Princes of Moscow |
|
|
(Muscovy): Danilovich dynasty2 |
|
|
Daniel (son of Alexander Nevsky) c. |
1276-1303 |
|
Yury |
1303-25 |
|
Ivan I |
1325-40 |
|
Semyon (Simeon) |
1340-53 |
|
Ivan II |
1353-59 |
|
Dmitry Donskoy |
1359-89 |
|
Vasily I |
1389-1425 |
|
Vasily II |
1425-62 |
|
Ivan III |
1462-1505 |
|
Vasily III |
1505-33 |
|
Ivan IV |
1533-47 |
|
Tsars of Russia: Danilovich dynasty |
|
|
Ivan IV |
1547-84 |
|
Fyodor I |
1584-98 |
|
Tsars of Russia: Time of Troubles |
|
|
Boris Godunov |
1598-1605 |
|
Fyodor II |
1605 |
|
RULER REIGN Tsars of Russia: Time of Troubles |
|
False Dmitry 1605-06 |
|
Vasily (IV) 1606-10 |
|
Interregnum 1610-12 |
|
Tsars and Empresses of Russia and the Russian Empire: Romanov dynasty3 |
|
Michael III 1613-45 |
|
Alexis 1645-76 |
|
Fyodor III 1676-82 |
|
Peter I (Ivan V coruler 1682-96) 1682-1725 |
|
Catherine I 1725-27 |
|
Peter II 1727-30 |
|
Anna 1730-40 |
|
Ivan VI 1740-41 |
|
Elizabeth 1741-61 (O.S.) |
|
Peter III4 1761-62 (O.S.) |
|
Catherine II 1762-96 |
|
Paul 1796-1801 |
|
Alexander I 1801-25 |
|
RULER REIGN Tsars and Empresses of Russia and the Russian Empire: Romanov dynasty3 |
|
Nicholas I 1825-55 |
|
Alexander II 1855-81 |
|
Alexander III 1881-94 |
|
Nicholas II 1894-1917 |
|
Provisional government 1917 |
|
Chairmen (or First Secretaries) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union |
|
Vladimir Lenin 1917-24 |
|
Joseph Stalin 1924-53 |
|
RULER |
REIGN |
|
Chairmen (or First Secretaries) of the |
|
|
Communist Party of the Soviet Union |
|
|
Georgy Malenkov |
1953 |
|
Nikita Khrushchev |
1953-64 |
|
Leonid Brezhnev |
1964-82 |
|
Yury Andropov |
1982-84 |
|
Konstantin Chernenko |
1984-85 |
|
Mikhail Gorbachev |
1985-91 |
|
Presidents of Russia |
|
|
Boris Yeltsin |
1990-99 |
|
Vladimir Putin |
2000-08 |
|
Dmitry Medvedev |
2008- |
1This table includes leaders of Muscovy, Russia, the Russian Empire, and the Soviet Union. 2The Danilovich dynasty is a late branch of the Rurik dynasty, named after its progenitor, Daniel. 3On 22 Oct (Old Style) 1721, Peter I the Great took the title of “emperor.” However, despite the official titling, conventional usage took an odd turn. Every male sovereign continued usually to be called tsar, but every female sovereign was conventionally called empress. 4The direct line of the Romanov dynasty came to an end in 1761 with the death of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I, but subsequent rulers of the “Holstein-Gottorp dynasty” (the first, Peter III, was son of Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and Anna, daughter of Peter I) took the family name of Romanov.
Middle East
Byzantine Emperors
The Byzantine Empire comprised what was previously the eastern half of the Roman Empire. It survived for nearly 1,000 years after the western half had crumbled into various feudal kingdoms; it finally fell to Ottoman Turkish onslaughts in 1453. For emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire (at Constantinople) before the fall of Rome, see “Roman Emperors.”
|
EMPEROR |
REIGN |
|
Zeno |
474-491 |
|
Anastasius I |
491-518 |
|
Justin I |
518-527 |
|
Justinian I |
527-565 |
|
Justin II |
565-578 |
|
Tiberius II Constantine |
578-582 |
|
Maurice Tiberius |
582-602 |
|
Phocas |
602-610 |
|
Heraclius |
610-641 |
|
Heraclius Constantine |
641 |
|
Heraclonas (or Heraclius) |
641 |
|
Constans II (Constantine Pogonatus) |
641-668 |
|
Constantine IV |
668-685 |
|
Justinian II Rhinotmetus |
685-695 |
|
Leontius |
695-698 |
|
Tiberius III |
698-705 |
|
Justinian II Rhinotmetus (restored) |
705-711 |
|
Philippicus |
711-713 |
|
Anastasius II |
713-715 |
|
Theodosius III |
715-717 |
|
Leo III |
717-741 |
|
Constantine V Copronymus |
741-775 |
|
Leo IV |
775-780 |
|
Constantine VI |
780-797 |
|
Irene (empress) |
797-802 |
|
Nicephorus I |
802-811 |
|
Stauracius |
811 |
|
Michael I Rhangabe |
811-813 |
|
Leo V |
813-820 |
|
Michael II Balbus |
820-829 |
|
Theophilus |
829-842 |
|
Michael III |
842-867 |
|
Basil I |
867-886 |
|
Leo VI |
886-912 |
|
EMPEROR |
REIGN |
|
Alexander |
912-913 |
|
Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus |
913-959 |
|
Romanus I Lecapenus |
920-944 |
|
Romanus II |
959-963 |
|
Nicephorus II Phocas |
963-969 |
|
John I Tzimisces |
969-976 |
|
Basil II Bulgaroctonus |
976-1025 |
|
Constantine VIII |
1025-28 |
|
Romanus III Argyrus |
1028-34 |
|
Michael IV |
1034-41 |
|
Michael V Calaphates |
1041-42 |
|
Zoe (empress) |
1042-56 |
|
Constantine IX Monomachus |
1042-55 |
|
Theodora (empress) |
1055-56 |
|
Michael VI Stratioticus |
1056-57 |
|
Isaac I Comnenus |
1057-59 |
|
Constantine X Ducas |
1059-67 |
|
Romanus IV Diogenes |
1067-71 |
|
Michael VII Ducas |
1071-78 |
|
Nicephorus III Botaniates |
1078-81 |
|
Alexius I Comnenus |
1081-1118 |
|
John II Comnenus |
1118-43 |
|
Manuel I Comnenus |
1143-80 |
|
Alexius II Comnenus |
1180-83 |
|
Andronicus I Comnenus |
1183-85 |
|
Isaac II Angelus |
1185-95 |
|
Alexius III Angelus |
1195-1203 |
|
Isaac II Angelus (restored) |
1203-04 |
|
and Alexius IV Angelus (joint ruler) |
|
|
Alexius V Ducas Murtzuphlus |
1204 |
|
Latin emperors |
|
|
Baldwin I |
1204-06 |
|
Henry |
1206-16 |
|
EMPEROR |
REIGN |
|
Latin emperors |
|
|
Peter |
1217 |
|
Yolande (empress) |
1217-19 |
|
Robert |
1221-28 |
|
Baldwin II |
1228-61 |
|
John |
1231-37 |
|
Nicaean emperors |
|
|
Constantine (XI) Lascaris |
1204-05? |
|
Theodore I Lascaris |
1205?-22 |
|
John III Ducas Vatatzes |
1222-54 |
|
Theodore II Lascaris |
1254-58 |
|
John IV Lascaris |
1258-61 |
EMPEROR REIGN Greek emperors restored
Michael VIII Palaeologus 1261-82
Andronicus II Palaeologus 1282-1328
Andronicus III Palaeologus 1328-41
John V Palaeologus 1341-76
John VI Cantacuzenus 1347-54
Andronicus IV Palaeologus 1376-79
John V Palaeologus (restored) 1379-90
John VII Palaeologus 1390
John V Palaeologus (restored) 1390-91
Manuel II Palaeologus 1391-1425
John VIII Palaeologus 1421-48
Constantine XI Palaeologus 1449-53
Caliphs
When Muhammad died on 8 Jun 632, Abu Bakr, his father-in-law, succeeded to his political and administrative functions. He and his three immediate successors are known as the “perfect” or “rightly guided” caliphs. After them, the title was borne by the 14 Umayyad caliphs of Damascus (from 661-750) and subsequently by the 38 ‘Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad (both are named after their clans of origin). The empire of the caliphate grew rapidly through conquest during its first two centuries to include most of southwestern Asia, North Africa, and Spain. ‘Abbasid power ended in 945,when the Buyids took Baghdad under their rule. They retained the ‘Abbasid caliphs as figureheads; other dynasties in Central Asia and the Ganges River basin acknowledged the ‘Abbasid caliphs as spiritual leaders. The Fatimids, however, proclaimed a new caliphate in 920 in their capital of al-Mahdiyah in Tunisia; it lasted until 1171, by which time opposition within the sect caused it to disintegrate. ‘Ab-basid authority was partially restored in the 12th century, but the caliphate ceased to exist with the Mongol destruction of Baghdad in 1258. Some principal caliphs are listed below.
|
CALIPH |
REIGN |
|
“Perfect” caliphs |
|
|
Abu Bakr |
632-634 |
|
‘Umar I |
634-644 |
|
‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan |
644-656 |
|
‘Ali |
656-661 |
|
Umayyad caliphs (Damascus) |
|
|
Mu’awiyah I |
661-680 |
|
‘Abd al-Malik |
685-705 |
|
al-Walid |
705-715 |
|
Hisham |
724-743 |
|
Marwan II |
744-750 |
|
‘Abbasid caliphs (Baghdad) |
|
|
as-Saffah |
749-754 |
|
Harun |
786-809 |
|
al-Ma’mun |
813-833 |
.
|
CALIPH |
REIGN |
|
Fatimid caliphs (al-Mahdiyah) |
|
|
al-Mahdi |
909-934 |
|
al-Qa’im |
934-946 |
|
al-Mansur |
946-953 |
|
al-Mu’izz |
953-975 |
|
al-Hakim |
996-1021 |
|
al-Mustansir |
1036-94 |
|
al-Musta’li |
1094-1101 |
|
‘Abbasid caliph (Baghdad) |
|
|
al-Nasir |
1180-1225 |
Sultans of the Ottoman Empire
One of the most powerful states in the world during the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman empire was created by Turkish tribes in Anatolia and spanned more than 600 years. It came to an end in 1922, when it was replaced by the Turkish Republic and various successor states in southeastern Europe and the Middle East. At its height the empire included most of southeastern Europe, the Middle East as far east as Iraq, North Africa as far west as Algeria, and most of the Arabian Peninsula. The term Ottoman is a dynastic appellation derived from Osman (Arabic: ‘Uthman), the nomadic Turkmen chief who founded both the dynasty and the empire.
|
SULTAN |
REIGN |
|
Osman I |
c. 1300-1324 |
|
Orhan |
1324-1360 |
|
Murad I |
1360-1389 |
|
Bayezid I |
1389-1402 |
|
Mehmed I |
1413-1421 |
|
Murad II |
1421-1444 |
|
Mehmed II |
1444-1446 |
|
SULTAN |
|
REIGN |
|
Murad II (second reign) |
1446- |
â– 1451 |
|
Mehmed II (second reign) |
1451- |
1481 |
|
Bayezid II |
1481- |
1512 |
|
Selim I |
1512- |
1520 |
|
Suleyman I |
1520- |
1566 |
|
Selim II |
1566- |
1574 |
|
Murad III |
1574- |
1595 |
|
SULTAN |
REIGN |
SULTAN |
REIGN |
|
Mehmed III |
1595-1603 |
Osman III |
1754-1757 |
|
Ahmed I |
1603-1617 |
Mustafa III |
1757-1774 |
|
Mustafa I |
1617-1618 |
Abdulhamid I |
1774-1789 |
|
Osman II |
1618-1622 |
Selim III |
1789-1807 |
|
Mustafa I (second reign) |
1622-1623 |
Mustafa IV |
1807-1808 |
|
Murad IV |
1623-1640 |
Mahmud II |
1808-1839 |
|
Ibrahim |
1640-1648 |
Abdulmecid I |
1839-1861 |
|
Mehmed IV |
1648-1687 |
Abdulaziz |
1861-1876 |
|
Suleyman II |
1687-1691 |
Murad V |
1876 |
|
Ahmed II |
1691-1695 |
Abdulhamid II |
1876-1909 |
|
Mustafa II |
1695-1703 |
Mehmed V |
1909-1918 |
|
Ahmed III |
1703-1730 |
Mehmed VI |
1918-1922 |
|
Mahmud I |
1730-1754 |
|
|
|
|
Persian Dynasties |
|
|
|
Dates given are approximate and may overlap. |
|
||
|
DYNASTY/KINGDOM |
PERIOD |
DYNASTY/KINGDOM |
PERIOD |
|
Median |
728-550 bc |
Seljuqs |
1038-1157 |
|
Achaemenian |
559-330 bc |
Mongols4 |
1220-1335 |
|
Hellenistic period of Alexander |
|
Timurids and Ottoman Turks |
1380-1501 |
|
and the Seleucids1 |
330 bc-247 bc |
Safavid |
1502-1736 |
|
Parthian period (Arsacid dynasty)2 |
247 bc-ad 224 |
Afghan interlude |
1723-36 |
|
Sasanian |
224-651 |
Nader Shah |
1736-47 |
|
Arab invasion and the advent of |
Zand |
1750-79 |
|
|
Islam |
640-829 |
Qajars |
1794-1925 |
|
Iranian intermezzo3 |
821-1055 |
Pahlavi |
1925-79 |
1Dates from the death of Darius III, the last Achaemenian king, and the invasion of Alexander the Great. 2Dates from the year in which the Parnian chief Arsaces first battled the Seleucids. 3Includes the Tahirid, Samanid, Ghaznavids, and Buyid dynasties. 4Mainly the Il-Khanid dynasty (1256-1353).
Asia
Indian Dynasties
Dates given are approximations.
|
DYNASTY |
LOCATION |
DATES |
DYNASTY |
LOCATION |
|
DATES |
|
Nanda |
Ganges Valley |
400 bc |
Pala |
Bengal |
800- |
1100 |
|
Maurya |
India, barring the |
400-200 bc |
Pratihara |
western India and |
900- |
1100 |
|
|
area south of |
|
|
upper Ganges Valley |
|
|
|
|
Mysore (Karnataka) |
|
Rastrakuta |
western and central |
800- |
1100 |
|
Indo-Greeks |
northern India |
200-100 bc |
|
Deccan |
|
|
|
Sunga |
Ganges Valley and |
200-100 bc |
Cola |
Tamil Nadu |
900- |
1300 |
|
|
parts of central |
|
Candella |
Bundelkhand |
1000- |
1200 |
|
|
India |
|
Cauhan |
Rajasthan |
1000- |
1200 |
|
Satavahana |
northern Deccan |
100 bc-ad 300 |
Caulukya |
Gujarat |
1000- |
1300 |
|
Saka |
western India |
100 bc-ad 400 |
Paramara |
western and central |
1000- |
1100 |
|
Kusana |
northern India and |
ad 100-300 |
|
India |
|
|
|
|
Central Asia |
|
Later Calukya |
western and central |
1000- |
1200 |
|
Gupta |
northern India |
400-600 |
|
Deccan |
|
|
|
Harsa |
northern India |
700 |
Hoysala |
central and southern |
1200- |
1400 |
|
Pallava |
Tamil Nadu |
400-900 |
|
Deccan |
|
|
|
Calukya |
western and central |
600-00 |
Yadava |
northern Deccan |
1200- |
1300 |
|
|
Deccan |
|
Pandya |
Tamil Nadu |
1300- |
1400 |
|
|
Japanese Historical Periods and Rulers |
|
|
|||
|
PERIOD |
|
DATES |
PERIOD |
|
|
DATES |
|
Asuka |
|
552-710 |
Muromachi (or Ashikaga) |
1338- |
1573 |
|
|
Nara |
|
710-784 |
Azuchi-Momoyama |
1574- |
1600 |
|
|
Heian |
|
794-1185 |
Edo (or Tokugawa) |
1603- |
1867 |
|
|
Kamakura |
|
1192-1333 |
Meiji |
|
1868- |
1912 |
Japanese Historical Periods and Rulers
Reign dates for the first 28 sovereigns (Jimmu through Senka) are taken from the Nihon shoki (“Chronicles of Japan”). The first 14 sovereigns are considered legendary, and while the next 14 are known to have existed, their exact reign dates have not been verified historically. When the year of actual accession and year of formal coronation are different, the latter is placed in parentheses after the former. If the two events took place in the same year, no special notation is used. If only the coronation year is known, it is placed in parentheses.
|
EMPEROR |
REIGN |
|
Jimmu |
(660)-585 bc |
|
Suizei |
(581)-549 bc |
|
Annei |
549-511 bc |
|
Itoku |
(510)-477 bc |
|
Kosho |
(475)-393 bc |
|
Koan |
(392)-291 bc |
|
Korei |
(290)-215 bc |
|
Kogen |
(214)-158 bc |
|
Kaika |
158-98 bc |
|
Sujin |
(97)-30 bc |
|
Suinin |
(29 bc)-ad 70 |
|
Keiko |
(71)-130 |
|
Seimu |
(131)-190 |
|
Chuai |
(192)-200 |
|
Jingu Kogo (regent) |
201-269 |
|
Ojin |
(270)-310 |
|
Nintoku |
(313)-399 |
|
Richu |
(400)-405 |
|
Hanzei |
(406)-410 |
|
Ingyo |
(412)-453 |
|
Anko |
453-456 |
|
Yuryaku |
456-479 |
|
Seinei |
(480)-484 |
|
Kenzo |
(485)-487 |
|
Ninken |
(488)-498 |
|
Buretsu |
498-506 |
|
Keitai |
(507)-531 |
|
Ankan |
531 (534)-535 |
|
Senka |
535-539 |
|
Kimmei |
539-571 |
|
Bidatsu |
(572)-585 |
|
Yomei |
585-587 |
|
Sushun |
587-592 |
|
Suiko (empress regnant) |
593-628 |
|
Jomei |
(629)-641 |
|
Kogyoku (empress regnant) |
(642)-645 |
|
Kotoku |
645-654 |
|
Saimei (empress regnant: |
(655)-661 |
|
Kogyoku rethroned) |
|
|
Tenji |
661 (668)-672 |
|
Kobun |
672 |
|
Temmu |
672 (673)-686 |
|
Jito (empress regnant) |
686 (690)-697 |
|
Mommu |
697-707 |
|
Gemmei (empress regnant) |
707-715 |
|
Gensho (empress regnant) |
715-724 |
|
Shomu |
724-749 |
|
Koken (empress regnant) |
749-758 |
|
Junnin |
758-764 |
|
Shotoku (empress regnant: |
764 (765)-770 |
|
Koken rethroned) |
|
|
Konin |
770-781 |
|
Kammu |
781-806 |
|
Heizei |
806-809 |
|
Saga |
809-823 |
|
Junna |
823-833 |
|
Nimmyo |
833-850 |
|
Montoku |
850-858 |
|
Seiwa |
858-876 |
|
Yozei |
876 (877)-884 |
|
Koko |
884-887 |
|
EMPEROR |
REIGN |
|
Uda |
887-897 |
|
Daigo |
897-930 |
|
Suzaku |
930-946 |
|
Murakami |
946-967 |
|
Reizei |
967-969 |
|
En’yu |
969-984 |
|
Kazan |
984-986 |
|
Ichijo |
986-1011 |
|
Sanjo |
1011-16 |
|
Go-Ichijo |
1016-36 |
|
Go-Suzaku |
1036-45 |
|
Go-Reizei |
1045-68 |
|
Go-Sanjo |
1068-72 |
|
Shirakawa |
1072-86 |
|
Horikawa |
1086-1107 |
|
Toba |
1107-23 |
|
Sutoku |
1123-41 |
|
Konoe |
1141-55 |
|
Go-Shirakawa |
1155-58 |
|
Nijo |
1158-65 |
|
Rokujo |
1165-68 |
|
Takakura |
1168-80 |
|
Antoku |
1180-851 |
|
Go-Toba |
1183 (1184)-98 |
|
Tsuchimikado |
1198-1210 |
|
Juntoku |
1210 (1211)-21 |
|
Chukyo |
1221 |
|
Goshirakawa |
1221 (1222)-32 |
|
Shijo |
1232 (1233)-42 |
|
Go-Saga |
1242-46 |
|
Go-Fukakusa |
1246-59/60 |
|
Kameyama |
1259/60-74 |
|
Gouda |
1274-87 |
|
Fushimi |
1287 (1288)-98 |
|
Go-Fushimi |
1298-1301 |
|
Go-Nijo |
1301-08 |
|
Hanazono |
1308-18 |
|
Go-Daigo |
1318-39 |
|
Go-Murakami |
1339-68 |
|
Chokei |
1368-83 |
|
Go-Kameyama |
1383-92 |
|
The Northern court2 |
|
|
Kogon |
1331 (1332)-33 |
|
Komyo |
1336 (1337/38)-48 |
|
Suko |
1348 (1349/50)-51 |
|
Go-Kogon |
1351 (1353/54)-71 |
|
Go-Enyu |
1371 (1374/75)-82 |
|
Go-Komatsu |
1382-92 |
|
Go-Komatsu |
1392-1412 |
|
Shoko |
1412 (1414)-28 |
|
Go-Hanazono |
1428 (1429/30)-64 |
|
Go-Tsuchimikado |
1464 (1465/66)-1500 |
|
Go-Kashiwabara |
1500 (1521)-26 |
|
Go-Nara |
1526 (1536)-57 |
|
Ogimachi |
1557 (1560)-86 |
|
Go-Yozei |
1586 (1587)-1611 |
|
Go-Mizunoo |
1611-29 |
|
Meisho (empress regnant) |
1629 (1630)-43 |
|
Go-Komyo |
1643-54 |
|
Go-Sai |
1654/55 (1656)-63 |
|
EMPEROR |
REIGN |
|
The Northern court2 |
|
|
Reigen |
1663-87 |
|
Higashiyama |
1687-1709 |
|
Nakamikado |
1709 (1710)-35 |
|
Sakuramachi |
1735-47 |
|
Momozono |
1747-62 |
|
Go-Sakuramachi |
1762 (1763)-71 |
|
(empress regnant) |
|
|
Go-Momozono |
1771-79 |
|
Kokaku |
1780-1817 |
|
EMPEROR |
REIGN |
|
The Northern court2 |
|
|
Ninko |
1817-46 |
|
Komei |
1846 (1847)-66 |
|
Meiji (personal name: |
1867 (1868)-1912 |
|
Mutsuhito; era name: Meiji) |
|
|
Taisho (personal name: |
1912 (1915)-26 |
|
Yoshihito; era name: Taisho) |
|
|
Hirohito (era name: Showa) |
1926 (1928)-1989 |
|
Akihito (era name: Heisei) |
1989 (1990)- |
Japanese Historical Periods and Rulers
1Antoku’s reign overlaps that of Go-Toba. Go-Toba was placed on the throne by the Minamoto clan after the rival Taira clan had fled Kyoto with Antoku. 2From 1336 until 1392 Japan witnessed the spectacle of two contending Imperial courts—the Southern court of Go-Daigo and his descendants, whose sphere of influence was restricted to the immediate vicinity of the Yoshino Mountains, and the Northern court of Kogon and his descendants, which was under the domination of the Ashikaga family.
Dates given for early dynasties are approximate and may overlap.
|
DYNASTY |
ALTERNATE NAME |
DATES |
|
Hsia1 |
Xia c |
. 2205-1766 bc |
|
Shang |
c |
. 1760-1030 bc |
|
Western Zhou |
Chou |
c. 1050-771 bc |
|
Eastern Zhou |
Chou |
c. 771-255 bc |
|
Qin |
Ch’in |
221-206 bc |
|
Han |
|
206 bc-ad 220 |
|
Western Jin |
Chin |
265-317 |
|
Eastern Jin2 |
Chin |
317-420 |
|
Six Dynasties2 |
|
220-589 |
|
Wu |
|
222-80 |
|
Eastern Jin2 |
|
317-420 |
|
Liusong |
|
420-79 |
|
DYNASTY |
ALTERNATE NAME |
DATES |
|
Six Dynasties2 |
|
|
|
Southern Qi |
|
479-502 |
|
Southern Liang |
|
502-57 |
|
Southern Chen |
|
557-89 |
|
Sui |
|
581-618 |
|
T’ang |
Tang |
618-907 |
|
Five Dynasties3 |
Ten Kingdoms3 |
907-960 |
|
Sung |
Song |
960-1279 |
|
Yuan |
Yuan, Mongol |
1206-1368 |
|
Ming |
|
1368-1644 |
|
Ch’ing |
Qing, Manchu |
1644-1911/12 |
1The Hsia Dynasty is mentioned in legends but is of undetermined historicity. 2Between the fall of the Han and the establishment of the Sui, China was divided into two societies, northern and southern. The Six Dynasties had their capital at Nanjing in the south. The Eastern Jin is considered one of these six dynasties and so is listed twice. 3Period of time between the fall of the T’ang dynasty and the founding of the Sung dynasty, when five would-be dynasties followed one another in quick succession in North China. The era is also known as the period of the Ten Kingdoms because 10 regimes dominated separate regions of South China during the same period.
Leaders of the People’s Republic of China Since 1949
|
Chinese Communist Party leaders |
|||
|
NAME |
TITLE |
|
DATES |
|
Mao Zedong |
CCP chairman |
1949- |
1976 |
|
Hua Guofeng |
CCP chairman |
1976- |
1981 |
|
Hu Yaobang |
CCP chairman; after |
1981- |
1987 |
|
|
September 1982, general |
|
|
|
|
secretary of the CCP |
|
|
|
Zhao Ziyang |
CCP general secretary |
1987- |
1989 |
|
Jiang Zemin |
CCP general secretary |
1989- |
2002 |
|
Hu Jintao |
CCP general secretary |
2002- |
|
NAME DATES
Zhou Enlai 1949-1976
Hua Guofeng 1976-1980
ZhaoZiyang 1980-1987
Li Peng 1987-1998
Zhu Rongji 1998-2003
Wen Jiabao 2003-
The Dalai Lama is the head of the dominant Dge-lugs-pa (Yellow Hat) order of Tibetan Buddhists and, until 1959, was both spiritual and temporal ruler of Tibet. In accordance with the belief in reincarnate lamas, which began to develop in the 14th century, the successors of the first Dalai Lama were considered his rebirths and came to be regarded as physical manifestations of the compassionate bodhisattva (“buddha-to-be”), Avalokitesvara.
|
DALAI LAMA |
NAME |
|
LIVED |
|
first |
Dge-’dun-grub-pa |
1391- |
1475 |
|
second |
Dge-’dun-rgya-mtsho |
1475- |
1542 |
|
third |
Bsod-nams-rgya-mtsho |
1543- |
1588 |
|
fourth |
Yon-tan-rgya-mtsho |
1589- |
1617 |
|
fifth |
Ngag-dbang-rgya-mtsho |
1617- |
1682 |
|
sixth |
Tshangs-dbyangs-rgya- |
1683- |
1706 |
|
|
mtsho |
|
|
|
seventh |
Bskal-bzang-rgya-mtsho |
1708- |
1757 |
|
DALAI LAMA |
NAME |
|
LIVED |
|
eighth |
‘Jam-dpal-rgya-mtsho |
1758- |
18041 |
|
ninth |
Lung-rtogs-rgya-mtsho |
1806- |
18151 |
|
tenth |
Tshul-khrims-rgya-mtsho |
1816- |
18371 |
|
eleventh |
Mkhas-grub-rgya-mtsho |
1838- |
18561 |
|
twelfth |
‘Phrin-las-rgya-mtsho |
1856- |
18751 |
|
thirteenth |
Thub-bstan-rgya-mtsho |
1875- |
19332 |
|
fourteenth |
Bstan-’dzin-rgya-mtsho |
1935- |
.3 |
The Americas
Pre-Columbian Civilizations
Various aboriginal American Indian cultures evolved in Meso-America (part of Mexico and Central America) and the Andean region (western South America) prior to Spanish exploration and conquest in the 16th century. These pre-Columbian civilizations were extraordinary developments in human society and culture, characterized by kingdoms and empires, great monuments and cities, and refinements in the arts, metallurgy, and writing. Dates given below are approximations.
|
CULTURE |
LOCATION |
DATES |
|
Meso-American civilizations |
|
|
|
Olmec |
Gulf coast of southern Mexico |
1150 BC-800 BC |
|
Zapotec |
Oaxaca, particularly Monte Alban |
500 bc-ad 900 |
|
Totonac |
east-central Mexico |
500 bc-ad 900 |
|
Teotihuacan |
Teotihuacan, in the Valley of Mexico |
ad 400-600 |
|
Maya |
southern Mexico and Guatemala |
250-900 |
|
Toltec |
central Mexico |
900-1200 |
|
Aztec |
central and southern Mexico |
1400-early 1500s |
|
Andean civilizations |
||
|
Nazca |
southern coast of Peru |
200 bc-ad 600 |
|
Recuay |
northern highlands of Peru |
200 bc-ad 600 |
|
Tiwanaku |
Lake Titicaca, Bolivia |
200 BC-AD 1000 |
|
Moche (Mochica) |
northern coast of Peru |
AD 1-700 |
|
Inca |
Pacific coast of South America |
1100-1532 |
Africa
Historic Sub-Saharan African States
|
STATE |
LOCATION IN PRESENT-DAY COUNTRIES |
FLOURISHED |
|
Aksumite kingdom |
Ethiopia, Sudan |
1st-10th centuries |
|
Asante empire |
Ghana |
18th-19th centuries |
|
Basuto kingdom |
Lesotho |
19th century |
|
Benin kingdom |
Nigeria |
12th-19th centuries |
|
kingdom of Buganda |
Uganda |
14th-20th centuries |
|
kingdom of Bunyoro |
Uganda |
15th-19th centuries |
|
kingdom of Burundi |
Burundi |
17th-20th centuries |
|
kingdom of Dahomey |
Benin |
17th-19th centuries |
|
Darfur |
Sudan |
17th-19th centuries |
|
kingdom of Dongola |
Sudan |
7th-14th centuries |
|
Fulani empire |
Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria |
19th-20th centuries |
|
Ghana empire |
Mali, Mauritania |
4th-13th centuries |
|
Hausa states |
Nigeria |
14th-19th centuries |
|
Kanem-Bornu |
Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon, Niger, Libya |
9th-19th centuries |
|
Kongo kingdom |
Angola, Dem. Rep. of Congo |
14th-17th centuries |
|
Kuba kingdom |
Dem. Rep. of Congo |
17th-19th centuries |
|
kingdom of Kush |
Egypt, Sudan |
c. 850 BC-c. AD 325 |
|
Luba empire |
Dem Rep. of Congo |
16th-19th centuries |
|
Lunda empire |
Dem. Rep. of Congo, Angola, Zambia |
17th-19th centuries |
|
Mali empire |
Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau |
13th-16th centuries |
Historic Sub-Saharan African States
|
STATE |
LOCATION IN PRESENT-DAY COUNTRIES |
FLOURISHED |
|
Ndongo kingdom |
Angola |
14th-17th centuries |
|
kingdom of Nubia |
Egypt, Sudan |
4th-7th centuries |
|
Oyo empire |
Nigeria |
16th-19th centuries |
|
Rozwi empire |
Zimbabwe, Botswana |
17th-19th centuries |
|
Shewa empire |
Ethiopia |
15th-19th centuries |
|
Songhai empire |
Nigeria, Niger |
6th-17th centuries |
|
Tukulor empire |
Mali |
19th century |
|
Wolof empire |
Senegal |
14th-19th centuries |
|
Zeng empire |
Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique |
10th-16th centuries |
|
Zulu kingdom |
South Africa |
19th century |
One of Africa’s least-explored regions, the northern part of the Republic of the Congo, an area of huge swamps and nearly impenetrable forests, was traversed by foot in 1999. Dr. Michael Fay, an ecologist with the Wildlife Conservation Society, and a team of 12 others undertook a 1,200-mi (1,900-km) survey of this area as well as similar areas in neighboring Gabon. The team concluded that this wilderness is seriously threatened.
