Since the founding of the United States, American foreign policy has vacillated between isolationism, or the reluctance to become involved in global politics, and moralism, which dictates that foreign policy be justified on ethical principals. The uniqueness of this approach to foreign policy derives from the peculiar experiences and circumstances of the United States itself: its geographic isolation from the centers of world conflict during the nineteenth century, its tendency toward pacifism in international affairs, and the uniqueness of the American experiment.
When the founders broke constitutional ties with England, they were convinced of the need to develop a foreign policy distinct from that of the European powers—a position characterized by Thomas Jefferson’s admonition against entangling alliances. This retreat from European politics can be seen as a retreat from the power politics of the time, for political conflict was centered in Europe. This period of American foreign policy can be described as the realistic period, an era in which when the United States understood that neutrality in international politics was necessitated by the national interest of the country.
The next period of foreign policy was guided by an approach that involved thinking in terms of moral principles yet acting in terms of power; it is known as the ideological period. In an era when the European powers struggled for colonial possessions through imperialistic ventures and wars of conquest in Africa and Asia, American foreign policy was influenced by the writings of Jefferson and John Quincy Adams, who described political interests in moral terms. The Monroe Doctrine and Manifest Destiny are the best examples of political interests couched in moral terminology. The ideological period ended during the latter half of the nineteenth century as the United States sought to become a great power, and it is best exhibited by the U.S. annexation of the Philippines following the cessation of the Spanish-American War in 1898.
America entered a new phase of foreign policy, known as the utopian period, when moral principles no longer justified the country’s national interest and foreign policy was divorced from political reality and dictated in terms of moral principles. This phase is best characterized by the political thought of Woodrow Wilson, who opposed the pursuit of America’s national interest—maintaining the balance of power in Europe—on moral grounds. Yet when President Wilson led the United States into war with Germany, he pursued the right policy—again, maintaining the balance of power in Europe—for the wrong reason. Wilson could only respond to the national interests of the Allies in terms of his own moral principles. At the Treaties of Paris and Versailles, the president had to agree to a series of compromises that, in effect, meant a capitulation of those very principles.
The isolation of the interwar period was interrupted by America’s entrance into World War II, primarily on moral grounds. The Axis powers were characterized as evil; thus, the goal of U.S. involvement in World War II could be viewed as the destruction of evil.
Following the end of World War II, America’s isolation from global politics ended, necessitated by a series of events that culminated with the onset of the cold war with the Soviet Union. A globalist course of foreign policy, motivated by domestic values, was set in motion. America’s foreign policy was to be based on the principles of maintaining the balance of power with the Soviet Union and assuming global responsibility. Threatening statements against Western-style capitalism by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin would be the guiding force of American foreign policy throughout the cold war era. Put another way, America’s global involvement would be based on opposition to the Soviet Union.
With the breakdown of the cold war consensus, as exemplified by America’s defeat in Vietnam, succeeding administrations attempted to introduce a new foreign policy to replace the outdated containment strategy. The administration of President Richard Nixon sought to reintroduce power politics to American foreign policy, whereas Jimmy Carter’s tried to introduce a global politics approach. Ronald Reagan and his administration restored a foreign policy from an earlier era, and the Soviet Union and the threat of international communism became the centerpiece of American foreign policy until the collapse of the USSR in 1991. Following the Soviets’ fall, the process of formulating American foreign policy objectives focused on economics. Changing technology, a growing population, and economic development necessitated the emphasis on economic needs.
In the post-World War II period, the foreign policy of the United States became directly entwined with foreign aid. In 1947 President Harry S Truman announced the Truman Doctrine, which provided funds for anticommunist forces in Greece and Turkey. The success of the Truman Doctrine resulted in the implementation of the Marshall Plan in late 1947, which provided $12 billion for the rebuilding of Western Europe (the plan had originally also been offered to the Soviet Union, which refused to participate). During the 1950s and 1960s the United States continued to divert foreign aid to areas on the verge of falling to communism, and it increased military expenditures in regions such as Korea and Vietnam. Funding went to the Afghanistan freedom fighters after the Soviets invaded that country in 1979, and aid was provided to the Contras in Nicaragua in an effort to topple the communist-backed Sandinista government. The United States also earmarked over $23 billion for the Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars) project that ultimately resulted in a series of U.S.-Soviet treaties to limit missiles. After the cold war ended with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, foreign policy expenditures took on a different function.
Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the United States has augmented its financial support of countries in Southeast Asia with large Muslim populations. Increases in assistance to nations such as India, Pakistan, and the Philippines rose between 17 percent and 250 percent. Pakistan received $200 million in 2002, and India received an increase of $25 million during the same period.
In 2002 the United States continued to provide foreign assistance to a number of countries and international organizations around the world, totaling $15.4 trillion. Israel received $720 million, Egypt $655 million, Jordan $150 million, East Timor $25 million, Mongolia $12 million, and the Sudan $10 million. Israel and Egypt also received $2,040,000 and $1,300,000 in military expenditures, respectively. In addition, the United States also spent $615 million in Eastern Europe and $795.5 million in the former Soviet Union. Another $318.5 million went for antiterrorism programs. Most of the balance of the foreign assistance budget focused on a variety of international programs, such as the Peace Corps, the Export-Import Bank, the Trade and Development Agency, HIV and AIDS research, refugee services, technology research, and efforts to end international slavery.
The U.S. economic involvement in foreign policy continues to promote the peace and stability of a number of regions around the world. It also promotes American interests and attempts to address the needs of peoples in distress. As in the past, political, cultural, and social considerations determine the amount and availability of U.S. funds provided to countries around the world.
