Police officers must perform a wide variety of duties and interact with a variety of different individuals within a community. Officers have the ability to issue traffic tickets and other citations, to decide when to arrest or not arrest a person, and to make the decision on the degree of force necessary in order for them to subdue a resisting suspect or otherwise perform their job. Because of this, police departments must understand the psychological effects of the job and create standards that apply to the field. Law enforcement agencies must also have some method of determining who they should or should not hire for their agency. Some types of psychological problems that are of great concern to law enforcement and could adversely impact the field include police stress and police suicide, corruption, antisocial personalities, the inability to work with others, and drug and alcohol problems. Facing any of these issues can result in the financial and/ or social ruin of a police department if it hires individuals who exhibit or might tend toward certain behaviors or anyone who is incapable of handling his or her job.
Many departments have set up psychological standards for those individuals applying for positions in law enforcement. Oftentimes, a recruit will have to take some type of psychological exam or personality test so that the departments can determine how well he or she will deal with the multifaceted duties of law enforcement personnel. While the best way to deal with those individuals who have the potential to cause problems is by not hiring them, police departments must also ensure that the psychological standards expected of applicants continue to be met after new recruits have become officers within their agency.
This article will discuss a variety of issues associated with the psychological toll of police work. The various problems facing police departments associated with the hiring of unqualified police officers will be addressed first. Understanding this issue is important in helping police departments identify what factors contribute to problems among police officers in order to develop solutions to such situations. One solution to dealing with the harm caused by unethical or unqualified officers is to conduct some type of preselection based on psychological standards or preemploy-ment screenings used in recruiting individuals who want to become police officers. These preselection standards can help a department learn whether an individual possesses any preexisting characteristics that would impair his or her ability to perform the job. This article will conclude with a discussion of the issue of maintaining psychological standards that can be used to deal with the psychological effects of the job and decrease the number of problems a department faces from officers with psychological issues.
Impact of Unqualified Officers
Obviously the impact that stress and suicide have on the field of law enforcement is very important: “Ongoing stress reduces mental functioning, leading to slower, less accurate decision making; heightened unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and depression; and a loss of desirable personal dispositions such as self-esteem, confidence, and a sense of self-control in one’s life” (Anshel 2000,378). Stress affects more than just the individual police officer. Once a police officer exhibits symptoms of job-related stress, problems within the police department can develop. These problems may include (1) poor performance and a decrease in productivity by officers, (2) low morale among police officers, (3) lawsuits from police officers because of stress-related problems, (4) an increase in absenteeism and arriving to work late, (5) early retirement of officers, and (6) ”[t]he added expense of training and hiring new recruits, as well as paying overtime, when the agency is left short-staffed as a result of turnover” (Finn 1997).
Because of the psychological effects of stress and the problems that arise for police departments as a result of stressed officers, police managers benefit from creating psychological standards that can weed out individuals who cannot perform the job or cannot handle the duties associated with the job. An officer who has psychological problems resulting from the inability to handle stress can harm the department and the community.
Once a police agency hires an officer, the agency is liable for the actions of that officer in the course of the job. If an officer who exhibits some type of psychological or personality problem—such as the inability to handle stress, antisocial personality, a tendency toward corruption, a record of prior deviant behavior or problems with the law, or substance or alcohol abuse—becomes involved in a conflict with a citizen, the consequences can be detrimental to the police department as a whole. This is especially true if the conflict results in physical harm to a citizen or if the officer engages in corrupt behavior. The community could lose faith in the police department and may see the whole department in a bad light. Hiring one unqualified police officer can cast a shadow on the whole agency that may take years for the department to recover from. Furthermore, the financial costs that can result from the failure of an officer to perform his or her duty properly can be devastating. Citizens can sue police departments if an officer violates their constitutional rights, causes physical harm to them, uses unlawful force or improperly uses deadly force, or falsely arrests a person.
Psychological Testing/Standards and Becoming an Officer
Many police departments have developed standards that individuals who want to become police officers must pass before the department will consider hiring them. “Police officer selection is vital not only for [organizational] effectiveness, but for the protection of other officers as well as the community that is served” (Coutts 1990 as cited in Simmers, Bowers, and Ruiz 2003, 277). Those individuals who are hired will be instrumental in maintaining or even improving the overall satisfaction and trust that the public has in the criminal justice process, particularly with regard to law enforcement. Police officers are given a lot of authority in terms of making arrests, issuing citations, enforcing laws, and using force in subduing suspects. If the department hires an individual who is violent, quick tempered, antisocial, or suffers from a psychological disorder that would interfere with job performance, this can have a tremendous impact on fellow officers, the department as a whole, and the citizens and community served by the department.
Police officers must be able to deal with all types of people. They must be able to deal with their fellow officers as well as various people within the community, from offenders to the elderly and children. Officers must be able to resist all types of unethical conduct, such as accepting bribes or gratuities, abusing drugs and alcohol, and discriminating against those different from them, in the performance of their duties. Police officers must have good communication skills and be able to come up with solutions to various problems that arise from day to day. In order for police departments to select candidates who are best for the job, standards and conditions figure into their hiring policies. There are education standards, physical standards, drug and alcohol use conditions, medical requirements, lie detector tests, and background checks that applicants must meet or submit to in order to get through the selection process.
Another type of standard that police departments apply to the hiring process is psychological standards. There are several reasons for the psychological screening of individuals before employment. This process helps weed out those individuals who are unable to perform the duties associated with the job due to a variety of factors. Another reason why preemployment psychological screening of individuals is important involves liability. Courts have taken the stance that police departments are to blame if they hire an individual who is psychologically unfit and problems arise (Simmers et al. 2003, 279). Different courts have also stated that the main job of police departments is the protection of citizens in the community within their jurisdiction (Simmers et al. 2003, 279). This includes protecting citizens from officers who are psychologically unfit and can cause harm to the community; police departments can be sued for the actions of their employees.
Police departments use a variety of different psychological tests to screen applicants. Departments usually give applicants a personality test in order to obtain information about that person that is not readily available in the application paperwork. ”Personality tests measure emotional, motivational, interpersonal, and attitudinal characteristics” (Coutts 1990 as cited in Simmers et al. 2003,279). Having information about all of these variables can ensure that police departments only hire those who are qualified and who do not exhibit any severe psychological problems. The goal of screening potential employees by using a psychological or personality test is to evaluate the applicants for mental illness and other personality problems as well as to see who meets the necessary qualifications to perform the job (Varlea et al. 2004, 649-50). ”Most frequent in the empirical literature are studies attempting to identify specific personality test scales or groups of scales that are predictive of objective performance criteria, such as termination, absenteeism, tardiness, citizen complaints, and commendations, or subjective performance criteria such as supervisor and peer ratings of performance” (Varlea et al. 2004, 650-51). All of these factors can impact the police department, not only because administrators have to put time, effort, and money into hiring new people, but also because they have to pay (financially, as well as in terms of time and departmental reputation) to investigate allegations of police misconduct. Furthermore, if police officers have to keep covering for ineffective, or even unethical, peers, they can feel negatively about the department.
One type of personality test used in preemployment screening is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), the latest version of which is known as the MMPI-II. Using this test to look at the characteristics of an applicant’s personality, police departments can eliminate those individuals who have traits that will make them unsuccessful in police work such drug or alcohol dependency, lack of moral or ethical values, and antisocial problems. Police departments use the MMPI-II to screen out individuals with deviant, dangerous, and potentially problematic behavior that could affect the police department in the long run (Bannish and Ruiz 2003, 834). “The MMPI, a 566-item, true-false questionnaire, consisting of 10 clinical scales and four validity scales, was developed initially to screen patients for psychological problems related to medical symptoms” (Graham 1987 as cited in Simmers et al. 2003, 279). Based on the different scales and the answers of the applicant, screeners can get a feel for the person and predict the likelihood of his or her success in the profession. Studies have shown that personality tests are very useful in policing and have ”reported significant relations between MMPI-II scales and such variables as automobile accidents, job tenure, academy performance and attrition, supervisors’ ratings, promotions, and job problems” (Hargrave and Hiatt 1987 as cited in Simmers et al. 2003, 281). This means that such personality tests can be a good indicator of future behavior.
According to Arrigo and Claussen (2003, 278), the MMPI might not be the best instrument in terms of preemployment screening in the field of law enforcement. One reason given is that the MMPI was developed to measure psychological disorders, and some of the questions might sound awkward to applicants who are filling out the questionnaire in order to obtain a job in policing. According to some researchers, a better measure than the MMPI or MMPI-II at evaluating potential law enforcement personnel is the Inwald Personality Inventory (IPI). “The IPI is a structured measure of various personality characteristics and behavioral patterns specific to the psychological fitness of candidates applying for law enforcement positions” (Fekken as quoted in Arrigo and Claussen 2003, 279-80). This instrument was specifically designed for the psychological screening of potential law enforcement applicants. ”Behavioral patterns and personality characteristics relevant to job performance can be identified, including substance abuse, trouble with the law, job difficulties, rigidity, suspiciousness, and interpersonal styles” (Arrigo and Claussen 2003, 280). This type of measure does a better job of predicting those people who are not qualified to become police officers or who will create problems for the department in the future in terms of liability, tardiness, and time loss.
The main reasons for having some form of psychological preemployment screening in the field of law enforcement is that the departments want to ensure that they hire the best people possible for performing the job. There have been too many high-profile instances in law enforcement involving excessive use of force, corruption, false arrests, and general misconduct among officers that have diminished the confidence and trust the people have in the criminal justice system as a whole and law enforcement in particular. Police officers are a highly visible presence in the community, and they come into contact with a variety of citizens, criminals and noncrim-inals alike. Police officers provide a variety of services to the community, and they need the cooperation and the trust of the community in order to perform their jobs. When police departments hire officers who are psychologically unstable in any manner, a multitude of problems could arise. Departments lose the money spent on training, paying, and, ultimately, investigating allegations brought against such officers when conflicts arise. Psychological standards and preemployment screening can provide tremendous benefits to the police department. The different testing instruments that are used in the recruiting phases of the process help police departments avoid the liability associated with hiring unqualified people.
Psychological Standards throughout the Law Enforcement Career
Law enforcement administrators can take many steps to ensure that continued psychological standards are met and evaluations of officers are performed. These include partnering with psychologists and psychiatrists who police officers can speak with about their concerns, fostering an environment that encourages communication by making sure that the administrator is available to officers, and creating programs within the department designed to alleviate the psychological tolls ofthe job. One ofthe main things that police departments can do is acknowledge the fact that they understand the stresses their employees face and send a message that they are willing to help officers. They have to ensure that ”city leaders understand the negative effects of stress in order to garner support for stress management and stress reduction initiatives” (Standfest 1996).
Just knowing that an employer is concerned and willing to help officers can help to reduce stress within a department. By routinely evaluating the psychological well-being of their employees, police departments can also help ensure that citizens are receiving the best possible protection from their law enforcement personnel, and administrators can ensure that they have hired those individuals who are best qualified for the job and can detect problems before they get out of hand.
