Picuris comes from the Spanish Picuris, "at the mountain gap." The word "pueblo" comes from the Spanish for "village." It refers both to a certain style of Southwest Indian architecture, characterized by multistory, apartmentlike buildings made of adobe, and to the people themselves. Rio Grande pueblos are known as eastern Pueblos; Zuni, Hopi, and sometimes Acoma and Laguna are known as western Pueblos. The people call their pueblo Pingultha, which means either "mountain warrior place" or "mountain pass place."
Location Picuris Pueblo is located on the western slopes of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, 18 miles south of Taos Pueblo. The average elevation is about 7,000 feet, which makes for a relatively short and somewhat precarious growing season.
Population There were perhaps 2,000 residents of Picuris Pueblo in 1630. In 1990, 147 Indians lived on the reservation out of a total population of 1,882.
Language People from Picuris spoke a dialect of Northern Tiwa, a Tanoan language.
Historical Information
History All Pueblo people are thought to be descended from Anasazi and perhaps Mogollon and several other ancient peoples. From them they learned architecture, farming, pottery, and basketry. Larger population groups became possible with effective agriculture and ways to store food surpluses. Within the context of a relatively stable existence, the people devoted increasing amounts of time and attention to religion, arts, and crafts.
In the 1200s, the Anasazi abandoned their traditional canyon homelands in response to climatic and social upheavals. A century or two of migrations ensued, followed in general by the slow reemergence of their culture in the historic pueblos. The Tiwas were probably the first of the Tanoan Pueblo people to enter the northern Rio Grande region. Initial settlement of Picuris Pueblo occurred in the twelfth century. It reached its prehistoric peak in the sixteenth century, then declined, probably as a result of the arrival of the Athapaskans.
In 1598, Juan de Onate arrived in the area with settlers, founding the colony of New Mexico. Onate carried on the process, already underway in nearby areas, of subjugating the local Indians; forcing them to pay taxes in crops, cotton, and work; and opening the door for Catholic missionaries to attack their religion. The Spanish renamed the Pueblos with saints’ names and began a program of church construction, constructing the Mission of San Lorenzo at Picuris in 1621. At the same time, the Spanish introduced such new crops as peaches, wheat, and peppers into the region. In 1620, a royal decree created civil offices at each pueblo; silver-headed canes, many of which remain in use today, symbolized the governor’s authority.
Picuris joined the Pueblo rebellion of 1680. For years, the Spaniards had routinely tortured Indians for practicing traditional religion. They also forced the Indians to labor for them, sold Indians into slavery, and let their cattle overgraze Indian land, a situation that eventually led to drought, erosion, and famine. Pope of San Juan Pueblo and other Pueblo leaders, including Tupatu or Luis Picuri, planned the great revolt, sending runners carrying cords of maguey fibers to mark the day of rebellion. On August 10, 1680, a virtually united stand on the part of the Pueblos drove the Spanish from the region. The Indians killed many Spaniards but refrained from mass slaughter, allowing most of them to leave Santa Fe for El Paso.
When the northern pueblos again revolted in 1696, the Picuris abandoned their pueblo and went to live for 20 years on the plains with the Apaches. Between 1680 and 1716, the Picuris population declined by 90 percent. By the 1700s, excluding Hopi and Zuni, only Taos, Picuris, Isleta, and Acoma Pueblos had not changed locations since the arrival of the Spanish. Although Pueblo unity did not last, and Santa Fe was officially reconquered in 1692, Spanish rule was notably less severe from then on. Harsh forced labor all but ceased, and the Indians reached an understanding with the Church that enabled them to continue practicing their traditional religion.
In general, the Pueblo eighteenth century was marked by smallpox epidemics and increased raiding by the Apache, Comanche, and Ute. The people practiced their religion but more or less in secret. During this time, intermarriage and regular exchange between Hispanic villages and Pueblo Indians created a new New Mexican culture, neither strictly Spanish nor Indian, but rather somewhat of a blend between the two. In the early part of the century the Picuris fought with the Spanish against the Apaches, Utes, and Comanches. They also welcomed a French trading party to the pueblo in 1739, having first encountered French goods through trade with Plains tribes 80 years earlier. By the late eighteenth century they had achieved peace with the Comanche. Partly as a result, Spanish settlement grew, and Picuris Pueblo became surrounded by Spanish-Americans.
Mexican "rule" in 1821 brought little immediate change to the Pueblos. The Mexicans stepped up what had been a gradual process of appropriating Indian land and water, and they allowed the nomadic tribes even greater latitude to raid. As the presence of the United States in the area grew, it attempted to enable the Pueblo Indians to continue their generally peaceful and self-sufficient ways and recognized Spanish land grants to the Pueblos (the grant to 600-year-old Picuris was recognized in 1858). Picuris spent much of the nineteenth century fighting encroachment. To help them, the people turned to non-native civil authorities (Spanish, Mexican, and U.S.). They achieved some success but lost political autonomy in the process.
The relative isolation of Picuris delayed the assimilationist pressures faced by other pueblos. However, a government day school, in which children learned Anglo ways and values, opened in 1899. Adults were encouraged to engage in wage work off the pueblo. Timber operations also began, damaging the fragile irrigation system. In an attempt to retain their identity, Pueblo Indians clung even more tenaciously to their heritage, which by now included elements of the once-hated Spanish culture and religion. By the 1880s, railroads had largely put an end to the traditional geographical isolation of the pueblos. Paradoxically, the U.S. decision to recognize Spanish land grants to the Pueblos denied Pueblo Indians certain rights granted under official treaties and left them particularly open to exploitation by squatters and thieves.
By the 1920s, land disputes had claimed the people’s traditional friendliness toward Spanish-Americans. By the 1930s, government wage work and food had largely replaced the subsistence life. Also, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) was actively intervening in the people’s political affairs. After a gap of over 300 years, the All Indian Pueblo Council began to meet again in the 1920s, specifically in response to a congressional threat to appropriate Pueblo lands. Partly as a result of the Council’s activities, Congress confirmed Pueblo title to their lands in 1924 by passing the Pueblo Lands Act. The United States also acknowledged its trust responsibilities in a series of legal decisions and other acts of Congress. Still, especially after 1900, Pueblo culture was increasingly threatened by Protestant evangelical missions and schools. The BIA also weighed in on the subject of acculturation, forcing Indian children to leave their homes and attend culture-killing boarding schools.
Since the late nineteenth century but especially after the 1960s, Pueblos have had to cope with onslaughts by (mostly white) anthropologists and seekers of Indian spirituality. The region is also known for its major art colonies at Taos and Santa Fe.
In 1947, the adult men of Picuris voted to change the name of the pueblo to San Lorenzo; however, the name Picuris was again adopted in 1955.
Religion In traditional Pueblo culture, religion and life are inseparable. To be in harmony with all of nature is the Pueblo ideal and way of life. The sun is seen as the representative of the Creator. Sacred mountains in each direction, plus the sun above and the earth below, define and balance the Pueblo world. Many Pueblo religious ceremonies revolve around the weather and are devoted to ensuring adequate rainfall. To this end, Pueblo Indians evoke the power of katsinas, sacred beings who live in mountains and other holy places, in ritual and masked dance.
In addition to the natural boundaries, Pueblo Indians have created a society that defines their world by providing balanced, reciprocal relationships within which people connect and harmonize with each other, the natural world, and time itself. At Picuris, people were divided into two patrilineal ceremonial groups, Northside and Southside. Each had a kiva, or prayer chamber. There were also a number of ceremonial organizations, such as Spring People (responsible for the first of three summer rain ceremonies), Fall People (responsible for the second ceremony), and Winter People (responsible for the third ceremony). All used a round house in the north pueblo for ceremonies, except the Winter People, whose ceremonies took place in the "ice kiva." Other ceremonial organizations included water clowns, a mountain group, a cacique’s group, and a women’s group.
According to tradition, the head of each pueblo is the religious leader, or cacique, whose primary responsibility it is to watch the sun and thereby determine the dates of ceremonies. Much ceremonialism is also based on medicine societies, and shamans who derive powers from animal spirits use their supernatural powers for curing, weather control, and ensuring the general welfare. Especially in the eastern pueblos, most ceremonies are kept secret. The mission church at Picuris also served local Spanish-Americans until the late 1800s.
Government Pueblo governments derived from two traditions. Offices that are probably indigenous include the cacique, or head of the Pueblo, and the war captains. These officials are intimately related to the religious structures of the pueblo and reflected the essentially theocratic nature of Pueblo government. At Picuris, a Council of Principales, composed of the headmen of ceremonial groups and respected elders, made policy, judged offenses, and appointed civil officers.
A parallel but in most cases distinctly less powerful group of officials was imposed by the Spanish authorities. Appointed by the traditional leadership, they generally dealt with external and church matters and included the governor and four assistant governors. The authority of their offices was symbolized by canes. In 1950, Picuris men voted in the pueblo’s first election for governor and other civil officials. At that time, the governor replaced the cacique as head of the pueblo. During the 1950s and 1960s, the All Indian Pueblo Council (of eastern villages) became increasingly active in asserting rights and solving problems.
Customs One mechanism that works to keep Pueblo societies coherent is a pervasive aversion to individualistic behavior. Children were raised with gentle guidance and a minimum of discipline. Pueblo Indians were generally monogamous, and divorce was relatively rare. After birth, the baby remained in bed with the mother for 30 days. Children were christened during this time and then confirmed in church between ages 6 and 12. Girls tended to marry in their late teens or early twenties; men about four years later. A new couple established a new household. At Picuris, the dead were ceremonially prepared (black mica on the face and a prayer feather in each hand), death songs were sung, and a wake and Christian hymns followed. Burial, with a food bag, occurred quickly, followed by a four-day vigil. In modern times photography by outsiders is discouraged.
Dwellings Picuris Pueblo featured apartment-style dwellings as high as nine stories. The buildings were constructed of adobe (earth and straw) bricks, with beams across the roof that were covered with poles, brush, and plaster. Floors were of wood plank or packed earth. The roof of one level served as the floor of another. The levels were interconnected by ladders. As an aid to defense, the traditional design included no doors or windows; entry was through the roof. Pit houses, or kivas, served as ceremonial chambers and clubhouses. The village plaza, around which all dwellings were clustered, is the spiritual center of the village where all the balanced forces of world come together.
Diet Before the Spanish arrived, Picuris people ate primarily corn, beans, and squash. They also grew cotton and tobacco. They hunted deer, mountain lion, bear, antelope, and rabbits. Occasionally, men from Picuris would travel east to hunt buffalo. The people also gathered a variety of wild seeds, nuts, berries, and other foods and fished in rivers and mountain streams. The Spanish introduced wheat, alfalfa, chilies, fruit trees, grapes, sheep, cattle, and garden vegetables, which soon became part of the regular diet.
Key Technology Precontact farming implements were wooden. Traditional irrigation systems included ditches as well as floodwater collection at arroyo mouths (ak chin). Tanning tools were made of bone and wood. The Spanish introduced metal tools and equipment. Men hunted with juniper bows and arrows.
Trade All Pueblos were part of extensive Native American trading networks. With the arrival of other cultures, Pueblo Indians also traded with the Hispanic American villages and then U.S. traders. At fixed times during summer or fall, enemies declared truces so that trading fairs might be held. The largest and best known was at Taos with the Comanche. Nomads exchanged slaves, buffalo hides, buckskins, jerked meat, and horses for agricultural and manufactured pueblo products. Pueblo Indians traded for shell and copper ornaments, turquoise, and macaw feathers. Trade along the Santa Fe Trail began in 1821. By the 1880s and the arrival of railroads, the Pueblos were dependent on many American-made goods, and the native manufacture of weaving and pottery declined and nearly died out.
The Picuris served as a link between Pueblo and Plains tribes. In particular, they were generally friendly with the Jicarilla Apache, exchanging both trade items and visits during ceremonies. Despite the proximity of Taos Pueblo (18 miles by trail), the two peoples interacted relatively infrequently and traded little but mountain plants. Picuris enjoyed generally good relations and trade with the Tewa-speaking pueblos, especially San Juan. Picuris also traded with Spanish-Americans, by whom they were surrounded from the eighteenth century on. They also occasionally worked for wages in Spanish-American fields.
Notable Arts In the Pueblo way, art and life are inseparable. Picuris arts included pottery, baskets, and woven cotton items. Songs, dances, and dramas also qualify as traditional arts. Many Pueblos experienced a renaissance of traditional arts in the twentieth century, beginning in 1919 with San Ildefonso pottery.
Transportation Spanish horses, mules, and cattle arrived at Picuris Pueblo in the seventeenth century.
Dress Men wore shirts, leggings, and moccasins made of deer hides tanned and colored red-brown with plant dye. Womens’ wrapped leggings and moccasins were of white buckskin. Clothing was also made of spun cotton. Rabbit skin was also used for clothing and robes.
War and Weapons Though often depicted as passive and docile, most Pueblo people regularly engaged in warfare. The great revolt of 1680 stands out as the major military action, but they also skirmished at other times with the Spanish and defended themselves against attackers such as Apaches, Comanches, and Utes. They also contributed auxiliary soldiers to provincial forces under Spain and Mexico, which were used mainly against raiding Indians and to protect merchant caravans on the Santa Fe Trail. After the raiding tribes began to pose less of a threat in the late nineteenth century, Pueblo military societies began to wither away, with the office of war captain changing to civil and religious functions.
Contemporary Information
Government/Reservations Picuris Pueblo contains almost 15,000 acres. Tribal officers are elected for two-year terms. The tribe is headed by a governor rather than a cacique.
Economy Most of the jobs at Picuris Pueblo are with federal and tribal programs. Little remains of the subsistence economy. Some people make pottery for the tourist trade, which is also served by a restaurant and a small museum and cultural center. The tribe also allows a college to hold an anthropological field school in the pueblo. There are also jobs fighting forest fires with the U.S. Forest Service. In 1991, the tribe opened a major hotel in Santa Fe, backed by non-Indian partners and the BIA. Many people leave the pueblo for outside jobs.
Legal Status Picuris Pueblo is a federally recognized tribal entity.
Daily Life The project of retaining a strong Indian identity is a difficult one in the late twentieth century. Although Picuris people have strong roots and the rebuilding of four kivas has characterized a renewed interest in traditional celebrations, the pueblo is largely acculturated. Children attend local public schools. San Lorenzo’s Day, on August 10, is the main feast day; during the races, the traditional division between Northside and Southside people is largely ignored. The pueblo also holds a mountain dance in late September as well as some other dances under direction of the war captain.
