Medicinal Uses (Bayleaf) —
Regarded as aperitif, carminative, diuretic, emetic, emmenagogue, narcotic, nervine, stimulant, stomachic, and sudorific. Oleum lauri, the fixed oil derived from the fruits (as opposed to EO) is widely expressed and used in Turkey. It is used in massage for rheumatism and to kill body parasites. Vets use the oleum as an analgesic and fly repellent (SPI). Bay oil sometimes used as a liniment or analgesic for earache. This may well be the ointment of unguent derived from the plant said to remedy sclerosis of the spleen and liver and tumors of the uterus, spleen, parotid, testicles, liver, and stomach (JLH). Southern Anatolians make a yellowish soap from the oleum to treat hair loss and skin ailments (SPI). The fruit, prepared in various manners, is said to help uterine fibroids, tuberosities of the face, scirrhus and scleroma of the uterus, scirrhus of the liver, indurations of the joints, spleen, and liver, internal tumors, wens, and tumors of the eye. Leaves and fruits are said to possess aromatic, stimulant, and narcotic properties. In small doses, leaves are diaphoretic; in large doses, emetic. In Lebanon, an extract from the leaves and berries, used as a carminative, is tightly corked and steeped in brandy in the sun for several days. The residue, after subsequent distillation, is used as a liniment for rheumatism and sprains,the distillate as an emmenagogue. Lebanese mountaineers are said to use raw berries to induce abortion. Berries macerated in flour were poulticed onto dislocations.
As a natural COX-2 Inhibitor, parthenolide, probably more prevalent in feverfew than bay (they should be carefully compared), may alleviate arthritis, gout, inflammation, and rheumatism, and possibly prevent cancer. Boik (2001) suggests parthenolide, if not feverfew or bayleaf, as a cancer preventive. According to Boik, three in vitro studies suggest parthenolide inhibits proliferation of multiple cancer lines, usually at levels of 3-9 \\M. Parthenolide reduced proliferation of human cervical cancer cells (IC50 = 3 \\M) and nasopharyngeal cancer cells (IC50 = 9.3 \\M). Boik (2001) identifies parthenolide as a PTK-Inhibitor which may secondarily help affect CAMs, induce apoptosis, inhibit angiogenesis, inhibit AP-1 activity, inhibit eicosanoid effects, inhibit histaminic effects, inhibit NF-kB activity, inhibit platelet aggregation, inhibit TNF, and inhibit VEGF. So we have one phytochemical, albeit at low levels in the Biblical laurel with more than a dozen different activities that could reduce the incidence of cancer. Boik (2001) calculates tentative human dosages as 96 mg/day (as scaled from animal antitumor studies), 57 mg/day (cytotoxic dose as determined from pharmacokinetic calculations) suggesting a target dose of 77 mg/day parthenolide. He suggests that 15-fold synergies with other phytochemicals may reduce that minimum antitumor dose closer to 5 mg parthenolide/day. Much lower doses (ca. 0.5-0.6 mg/day) are used classically for other conditions.
The EO has bactericidal and fungicidal properties, e.g., the dried leaves and its EOs inhibit Bacillus cereus, Candida albicans, Clostridium botulinum, Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium smeg-matis, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, etc. (SPI). Hammer et al. (1999), in a study of 52 plant oils and extracts for activity against Acinetobacter baumanii, Aeromonas veronii biogroup sobria, Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotype typhimurium, Serratia marcescens and Staphylococcus aureus, noted that lemongrass, oregano, and bay inhibited all organisms at concentrations of <2.0%. Other organisms arrested or killed by bayleaf, its oils or its extracts: among bacteria, Bacillus subtilis, Hafnea alnei, Micrococcus luteus, and Salmonella enteridis, and among fungi, Aspergillus niger, A. terreus, Fusarium moniliforme, Phytophthora capsici, Rhizoctonia solani, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Leaf extracts reduce afla-toxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus and botulitoxin from Clostridium botulinum (HH3). Peirce (1999), in the American Pharmaceutical Association’s guide to natural medicines, states, “Test tube studies indicate that bay extracts kill a number of disease-causing bacteria, fungi, and viruses…. Some commercial German antiviral products contain bay extracts.” And the bay might repel some germ-laden cockroaches. According to a 1981 study, bay contains cockroach-repelling compounds, including cineole (up to 50% in the volatile oil) (Peirce,1999). Rinzler (1990) adds that fleas (carriers of some plagues) and moths are also repelled.
There was a catchy title on the Internet, Bayleaf and Bubonic Buzzwords (admittedly on my website (http://www.fathernaturesfarmacy.com), hypothesizing that the parthenolide in bay might be useful in disarming the anthrax toxin, at least in vitro. Parthenolide is said to (1) Inhibit IL-1 secretion, (2) Inhibit phospholipase A2, (3) Inhibit TNF-a secretion, and (4) Inhibit tyrosine kinase. More importantly, it can be used in an immune boosting lentil soup. Ingredients per person and directions are:
• 1/2 cup dry lentils (wash and strain off any stones; soak 1 hr)
• 1 heaping tsp dry fenugreek seed (wash and strain off any stones; soak 1 hr) (may be bitter; my sample soup was much better the day after, losing most of the bitterness)
• 1/2 cup chopped onions, chives, leeks, ramps, scallions, mix and match as available
• Dash of curry (or powdered turmeric), oregano, or Biblical hyssop
• 1 whole bayleaf
• 1/2 clove garlic
• Salt and pepper and paprika to taste
• Simmer 2 hr or until tender
When it comes to stray anthrax, bubonic plague, chicken pox, fox pox, and smallpox, it might help, at least by complementing the Cipro. But remember, there have been no clinical trials comparing Cipro with lentil soup, or just plain garlic or bayleaf. I’d bet more on the garlic or bayleaf than the lentil soup, which dilutes the garlic and the bayleaf. But lentil soup, if pleasing, can boost your immune system, while providing hundreds of gentle antiseptic phytochemicals. I won’t name all the side effects of Cipro. But it will soon lead to Cipro-resistant anthrax if we are not careful. That won’t happen with the garlic or the bayleaf.
3,4-Dimethoxyallylbenzene produces sedation in mice at low doses; a reversible narcosis at higher doses. It prevented the death of mice treated with lethal convulsant doses of strychnine. It may have relatively specific nervous or myoneural effects, perhaps suggesting a clinical potential.
Indications (Bayleaf) —
Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF); Amenorrhea (f; CRC; SPI); Anorexia (1; APA; BOW); Arthrosis (1; APA; COX; FNF); Bacteria (1; CRC; FNF; HHB); Bruise (f; APA); Bugbite (f; APA); Cancer (1; CRC; FNF; JLH); Cancer, anus (1; JLH); Cancer, colon (1; COX; FNF); Cancer, eye (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, face (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, joint (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, liver (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, mouth (1; JLH); Cancer, parotid (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, spleen (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, stomach (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, testicle (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer,
uterus (f; CRC; JLH); Candida (1; HH3; SPI); Cheilosis (f; HH3); Colic (f; APA; CRC; SPI);
Condyloma (f; CRC); Cough (f; CRC); Cramp (1; FNF); Dandruff (f; APA); Deafness (f; JFM); Debility (f; JFM); Dermatosis (f; APA; SPI); Dyspepsia (1; APA; FNF; JFM); Earache (f; CRC); Escherichia (1; X10438227); Fibroid (f; CRC; JLH); Fungus (1; CRC; FNF); Furuncle (f; HH3); Gas (1; APA; SPI); Gastrosis (f; CRC); Hepatosis (1; CRC; FNF); High Blood Pressure (1; APA; FNF); HIV (1; FNF); Hysteria (f; CRC; SPI); Impostume (f; CRC; JLH); Infection (1; CRC; FNF; SPI); Inflammation (1; FNF); Klebsiella (1; X10438227); Leukemia (1; FNF); Mange (f;
JFM); Melanoma (1; FNF); Migraine (1; FNF; HAD); Mycosis (1; CRC; FNF; SPI); Orchosis
(f; JLH); Pain (1; APA; FNF); Parasite (1; HHB; SPI); Pediculosis (f; HH3); Polyp (f; CRC);
Proctosis (f; JLH); Rheumatism (f; CRC; HH3; PHR; PH2; SPI); Salmonella (1; HH3); Scabies
(f; BOW); Sclerosis (f; CRC); Sore (f; APA; HH3; JFM); Spasm (1; CRC; FNF); Sprain (f; APA; CRC; WOI); Staphylococcus (1; HH3; SPI); Stomatosis (f; HH3); Tumor (1; FNF); Ulcer (f; JFM); Uterosis (f; JLH); Virus (1; FNF); Water Retention (1; FNF); Wen (f; CRC); Wound (1; APA); Yeast (1; X10438227).
Bayleaf for cancer:
• AntiEBV: (-)-epicatechin; beta-eudesmol
• AntiHIV: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; caffeic-acid; methanol; quercetin
• Antiaggregant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; acetyl-eugenol; artecanin; caffeic-acid; elemicin; estragole; eugenol; eugenyl-acetate; kaempferol; parthenolide; quercetin; sal-icylates; thymol
• Antiarachidonate: eugenol
• Anticancer: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; beta-myrcene; caffeic-acid; camphor; carvone; cinnamic-acid; citral; estragole; eugenol; eugenol-methyl-ether; geraniol; isoquercitrin; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; methyl-eugenol; p-coumaric-acid; parthenolide; quercetin; quercitrin; rutin; terpineol
• Anticarcinogenic: (-)-epigallocatechin; caffeic-acid
• Antiestrogenic: quercetin
• Antifibrosarcomic: quercetin
• Antihepatotoxic: caffeic-acid; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; quercitrin; rutin
• Antihyaluronidase: proanthocyanidins
• Antiinflammatory: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; boldine; borneol; caffeic-acid; carvacrol; caryophyllene; caryophyllene-oxide; cinnamic-acid;
delta-3-carene; eugenol; eugenyl-acetate; kaempferol; mannitol; parthenolide; quercetin; quercitrin; rutin; salicylates; santamarin; santamarine; thymol
• Antileukemic: (-)-epicatechin; astragalin; kaempferol; quercetin
• Antileukotriene: caffeic-acid; quercetin
• Antilipoperoxidant: (-)-epicatechin; quercetin
• Antimelanomic: carvacrol; geraniol; perillyl-alcohol; quercetin; thymol
• Antimutagenic: (+)-catechin; (+)-gallocatechin; (-)-epicatechin; (-)-epigallocatechin; beta-eudesmol; caffeic-acid; cinnamic-acid; costunolide; eugenol; kaempferol; limonene; mannitol; myrcene; quercetin; quercitrin; rutin
• Antinitrosaminic: caffeic-acid; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin
• Antioxidant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; (-)-epigallocatechin; acetyl-eugenol; boldine; caffeic-acid; camphene; carvacrol; cyanidin; eugenol; gamma-terpinene; isoquercitrin; kaempferol; mannitol; methyl-eugenol; myrcene; p-coumaric-acid; proanthocyanidins; quercetin; quercitrin; rutin; thymol
• Antiperoxidant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; caffeic-acid; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin
• Antiproliferant: perillyl-alcohol; quercetin; terpineol
• Antiprostaglandin: (+)-catechin; caffeic-acid; carvacrol; eugenol; eugenyl-acetate; par-thenolide
• Antistress: elemicin
• Antithromboxane: eugenol
• Antitumor: benzaldehyde; beta-eudesmol; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; caryophyllene-oxide; costunolide; eugenol; geraniol; isoquercitrin; kaempferol; limonene; p-coumaric-acid; parthenolide; proanthocyanidins; quercetin; quercitrin; rutin; santamarin; santam-arine; tulipinolide
• Antiviral: (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; beta-bisabolene; bornyl-acetate; caffeic-acid; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; neryl-acetate; p-cymene; proanthocyanidins; quercetin; quercitrin; rutin
• Apoptotic: kaempferol; perillyl-alcohol; quercetin
• Beta-Glucuronidase-Inhibitor: proanthocyanidins
• COX-2-Inhibitor: (+)-catechin; eugenol; kaempferol; parthenolide; quercetin
• Chemopreventive: limonene; perillyl-alcohol
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: (+)-catechin; carvacrol; kaempferol; parthenolide; quercetin; thymol
• Cytochrome-p450-Inducer: 1,8-cineole; delta-cadinene
• Cytoprotective: caffeic-acid
• Cytotoxic: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; caffeic-acid; eugenol; p-coumaric-acid; par-thenolide; quercetin; santamarin; tulipinolide
• DNA-Binder: elemicin; estragole; eugenol-methyl-ether
• Hepatoprotective: (+)-catechin; beta-eudesmol; boldine; borneol; caffeic-acid; eugenol; proanthocyanidins; quercetin
• Hepatotonic: 1,8-cineole; quercitrin
• Immunostimulant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; astragalin; benzaldehyde; caffeic-acid
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: (-)-epicatechin; (-)-epigallocatechin; caffeic-acid; cinnamic-acid; kaempferol; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; rutin
• Mast-Cell-Stabilizer: quercetin
• Ornithine-Decarboxylase-Inhibitor: caffeic-acid; limonene; proanthocyanidins; quercetin
• p450-Inducer: 1,8-cineole; delta-cadinene; quercetin
• PTK-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Prostaglandigenic: caffeic-acid; p-coumaric-acid
• Protein-Kinase-C-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Reverse-Transcriptase-Inhibitor: (-)-epicatechin
• Sunscreen: caffeic-acid; rutin
• Topoisomerase-II-Inhibitor: isoquercitrin; kaempferol; quercetin; rutin
• Tyrosine-Kinase-Inhibitor: quercetin
Bayleaf for infection:
• Analgesic: borneol; caffeic-acid; camphor; eugenol; myrcene; p-cymene; quercetin; reti-culine; thymol
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; benzaldehyde; camphor; carvacrol; cinnamic-acid; eugenol; lina-lool; methyl-eugenol; myrcene; thymol
• Antibacterial: (-)-epicatechin; (-)-epigallocatechin; 1,8-cineole; acetic-acid; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; bornyl-acetate; caffeic-acid; carvacrol; caryo-phyllene; cinnamic-acid; citral; delta-3-carene; delta-cadinene; eugenol; geraniol; iso-quercitrin; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; methyl-eugenol; myrcene; neral; nerol; p-coumaric-acid; p-cymene; parthenolide; perillyl-alcohol; quercetin; quercitrin; reticuline; rutin; terpinen-4-ol; terpineol; terpinyl-acetate; thymol
• Antiedemic: boldine; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; caryophyllene-oxide; eugenol; proan-thocyanidins; quercitrin; rutin
• Antiinflammatory: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; boldine; borneol; caffeic-acid; carvacrol; caryophyllene; caryophyllene-oxide; cinnamic-acid; delta-3-carene; eugenol; eugenyl-acetate; kaempferol; mannitol; parthenolide; quercetin; quercitrin; rutin; salicylates; santamarin; santamarine; thymol
• Antiseptic: 1,8-cineole; actinodaphnine; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; beta-pinene; caf-feic-acid; camphor; carvacrol; carvone; citral; eugenol; formic-acid; geraniol; guaijav-erin; hexanal; hexanol; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; methyl-eugenol; nerol; parthenolide; proanthocyanidins; terpinen-4-ol; terpineol; thymol
• Antiviral: (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; beta-bisabolene; bornyl-acetate; caffeic-acid; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; neryl-acetate; p-cymene; proanthocyanidins; quercetin; quercitrin; rutin
• Astringent: formic-acid
• Bacteristat: quercetin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: (+)-catechin; eugenol; kaempferol; parthenolide; quercetin
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: (+)-catechin; carvacrol; kaempferol; parthenolide; quercetin; thymol
• Fungicide: 1,8-cineole; acetic-acid; alpha-phellandrene; beta-phellandrene; caffeic-acid; camphor; caprylic-acid; carvacrol; caryophyllene; caryophyllene-oxide; cinnamic-acid; citral; elemicin; eugenol; geraniol; linalool; methyl-eugenol; myrcene; p-coumaric-acid; p-cymene; parthenolide; perillyl-alcohol; propionic-acid; quercetin; reticuline; terpinen-4-ol; terpinolene; thymol
• Fungistat: formic-acid; limonene; methyl-eugenol
• Immunostimulant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; astragalin; benzaldehyde; caffeic-acid
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: (-)-epicatechin; (-)-epigallocatechin; caffeic-acid; cinnamic-acid; kaempferol; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; rutin
Other Uses (Bayleaf) —
In Biblical times, the bay was symbolic of wealth and wickedness. In the ancient Olympic games, the victorious contestant was awarded a chaplet of bay leaves, placed on his brow. The Roman gold coin of 342 B.C. has a laurel wreath modeled on its surface (BIB). The evergreen leaves, when broken, emit a sweet scent and furnish an extract used by the Orientals in making perfumed oil. Dried bay leaves are used to flavor meats, fish, poultry, shrimp and crab boils, soups, stews, stuffings, tomato sauces, and vegetables. They are also used as an ingredient
in pickling spices and vinegars, even toothpastes (AAR, BIB, FAC, RIN). One or two medium-sized leaves will flavor almost any family dish. Rinzler (1990) suggests a leaf or two in the water to boil carrots, noodles, pasta, or potatoes, not to mention the spaghetti sauce itself. Bay leaves can create a flavorful bed for roasted or steamed meats and fish. Foods cooked en papillote are often seasoned with bay leaf, included in the wrappings. The leaves are indispensable in French cooking and basic bouquet garni (soups, stews, and stocks). Court boullion, for poaching fish, is also flavored with bay leaf, as are many marinades. Bay leaves are somewhat less bitter after drying than when fresh. Leaves can obstruct or even puncture the intestine, so they should be removed after cooking (AAR, RIN). In Corfu, the leaves are wrapped around “sikopsoma,” a flattened cake of dried, spiced figs (FAC, SPI). Leaves are used as packing for fig and licorice, to deter weevils (Bown, 2001). Leaves have served as a tea substitute. And a leaf in a canister of flour just might keep out the bugs. If bay leaves will keep moths out of your woolens, maybe cardamom (richer in cineole) will do better. Twigs may be used as skewers for kebabs. Bark was used as a flavoring in ancient Rome and was one of the spices added to “mustacei,” predecessor of the modern day mostaccioli biscuits. Spice cookies and dishes based on soft cheeses (ricotta) can be brightened by grated bay bark; one-eighth teaspoon suffices for a cup of ricotta or a cup of cookie dough (AAR). The berries are distilled to make a liqueur called “fioravanti.” Dark berries are edible (bacca laureus) (AAR). Dried fruits and the leaf oil are also used for flavoring (FAC). The EO, distilled from the leaves, is used in perfumery and for flavoring food products such as baked goods, confectionary, meats, sausages, and canned soups. The oil can be measured more precisely and provides more uniform results. Oil and oleoresin of bay are used as soluble pickling spices, frequently in producing corned beef. The fat oleum lauri, from the edible fruits, has served in soap making and veterinary medicine. Juniper berries, or big black peppercorns, can be used as substitutes for bay leaves in some recipes (AAR). The wood, resembling walnut, can be used for cabinetry. Wood is used as an aromatic smoke flavoring (FAC).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2, et al., 2002.
Cultivation (Bayleaf) —
Hardy from zone 10-8, marginally hardy to zone 7. Fares best in full sun, and moist but well-drained, friable garden loam, pH 4.5-8.2 (average 6.2). Warm humid summers are best (JAD, TAD). As many Mediterranean plants, it can tolerate a spell of drought. Sweet Bay is propagated by cuttings from half-ripened shoots, placed in a frame in July, forming roots in a few weeks; otherwise, they may require 6-9 months to root. Tucker and DeBaggio (2000) suggest rooting the suckers that arise at the base of the plant or with top shoots (severed small branches). They got their best results with tip cuttings of half-hardened wood soaked in water 4-6 weeks (changing the water every day), then moved to the rooting medium. All rooted within 3 weeks. Plants grown in large tubs or in conservatories may require one or more clippings per year, an occasional washing of the leaves, and a feeding once in a while to keep them healthy. In areas where the plants are grown commercially and suitable soils do not occur naturally, it is necessary to plant each tree in a large hole 75 cm across by 60 cm deep, filled with sand and compost. Plant easily pruned to desired shape. Leaves harvested manually and dried on trays in a moderately warm sheltered place, out of direct sun. Leaves may be flattened under flat plywood to prevent their curling. After two weeks or so drying, the dry leaves are containerized for shipment (CFR, TAD).
Chemistry (Bayleaf) —
Yoshikawa et al. (2000) found seven alcohol-absorption-inhibitors in the leaves: costunolide, dehydrocostus lactone, zaluzanin D, reynosin, santamarine, 3alpha-acetoxy-eudesma-1,4(15),11(13)-trien-12,6alpha-+++olide, and 3-oxoeudesma-1,4,11(13)-trien-12,6alpha-olide), identified as the active principles from the leaves of Laurus nobilis. These sesquiterpenes appear to selectively inhibit ethanol absorption. Artemorin, costunolide, costuslactone, deacetly-laurenobiolide, laurenobiolide, reynosin, santamarin, and verlorin, are eight alpha-methylene-gamma-butyrolactones documented to be the chief cause of allergy (contact dermatitis) in Laurus (TAD). Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in bayleaf. For a complete listing of
the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium, and duCel-lier, 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
1,8-Cineole — See also Elettaria cardamomum.
Costunolide — Antimutagenic; Antitumor; Chemopreventive 50-200 mg/kg/day; Dermatitigenic; Detoxicant 50-200 mg/kg/day; Ethanol-Absorption-Inhibitor; Fungicide EC50 = 6 |lg/ml; GST-Inducer 50-200 mg/kg/day; NO-Inhibitor IC50 = 1.2-3.8 |M; Schistosomicide; Trematodicide.
Lauric-Acid — Antibacterial; Antiviral; Candidicide; Hypercholesterolemic; LD50 = 131 ivn mus.
Neral — Antibacterial; Antispasmodic.
Nerol — Antibacterial; Antiseptic; Sedative; Trichomonicide ED100 = 300 ng/ml; LD50 = 3600 mg/kg orl rat.
Neryl-Acetate — Antiflu; Antiviral.
Oleic-Acid — See also Dipteryx odorata.
Parthenolide — Allelopathic; Antiaggregant IC50 = 50 [iM; Antiarthritic; Antibacterial MIC = 16-64 |lg/ml; Anticarcinomic 0.45-1.1 |lg/ml; Antieicosanoid [iM; Antifibrosarcomic 6-9 [iM; Antiinflammatory; Antilymphomic 6-9 [iM; Antimigraine 250 ^g/man/day; Antimycobacterial MIC = 16-64 |lg/ml; Antineuralgic; Antiproliferant 3-9 [iM; Antiprostaglandin; Antisecretory; Antiseptic MIC = 16-64 |lg/ml; Antispasmodic; Antitubercular MIC = 16-64 |lg/ml; Antitumor 3-9 |lM; Candidicide; COX-2-Inhibitor IC50 = 0.8 [iM; Cytotoxic 2.3 ppm; Dermatitigenic; Fungicide; Gram(+)-icide; 5-HT-Inhibitor; Hypercalcuric; 5-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor IC50 = 20-200 |lM; NF-kB-Inhibitor; Phospholipase-Inhibitor; Prostaglandin-Synthetase-Inhibitor; PTK-Inhibitor 10-100 |M, IC50 = 20 \\M.
Lindera benzoin (L.) Blume (Lauraceae) Benjamin Bush, Spicebush, Wild Allspice
Synonyms —
Benzoin aestivale (L.) Nees, Laurus aestivalis L., L. benzoin L.
Medicinal Uses (Spicebush) — Cherokee Indians used spicebush for amenorrhea, blood disorders, cold, cough, croup, dysmenorrhea, dyspepsia, flu, gas, hives, nausea, phthisis and swellings. They also drank spicebush tea as a spring tonic and steeped the bark with wild cherry and dogwood in corn whiskey to break out measles (probably also good for cold, cough, and malaria) (HAD).
Cherokee inhaled the steam to clear sinuses and used the twig decoction in baths for arthritic pain, sometimes also drinking the tea (Winston, 2001). Creek Indians used the tea for pains of rheumatism, for purifying the blood, and making themselves sweat and throw up, a ritual cleansing. Wisely, they added willow to spicebush tea for drinking and using in the sweat lodges for rheumatism. The drug of choice today is still usually based on salicylates, which are copious in most willows. Iroquois used spicebush for colds, fevers, gonorrhea, measles, and syphilis. Mohegans chewed the leaves or took the tea for worms. Ojibwa took the tea for anemia and that “tired rundown feeling.” Rappahannock used the tea for menstrual pain or delayed periods. Medicinally, the berries were used as a carminative for gas and colic. The oil from the fruits was applied to bruises, and muscles or joints, for chronic rheumatism. The tea made from the twigs was popular with the settlers (and available all year) for colds, colic, fevers, gas, and worms. The bark tea was used for various fevers, including typhoid, and to expel worms (FAD). Boiling a cupful chopped bark in one quart of maple sap that has been reduced to one quarter makes a pleasant tea, useful for fatigue.
There’s not much folklore to anticipate that spicebush might be useful in yeast (candida), but maybe the Indians didn’t have yeast. Apparently, the yeast is a normal component of the flora of all human beings. Maybe candida is mostly an iatrogenic ailment, induced by our medicines. Respected naturopaths Murray and Pizzorno (1991) say that, when antibiotic use first became widespread, it was noted immediately that yeast infections increased. White man’s alcohol, anti-ulcer drugs, corticosteroids, increase in diabetes, oral contraceptives, tights instead of cotton undergarments, and too much sugar in the diet all may have contributed to the emergence of candidiasis as a major ailment, today afflicting half our womenfolk. The total incidence and relative frequency of vaginal candidiasis have increased more than two-fold since the late 1960s. Studying 54 plant species for antimicrobial effects, Heisey and Gorham (1992) found their extract of spicebush bark strongly inhibited yeast (Candida albicans) much better than any of the other 53 species. Walnut husks also showed some activity. Now, if garlic vinegar with spicebush and walnut hulls is as safe and effective as the commercial candidicides, it could save a lot of ladies (and gents) some $2000. Garlic is reportedly better than Nystatin. I suspect that my mix might be as safe and efficacious as any of the antiyeast drugs named above, but who will pay for the clinical trials to prove it?
Indications (Spicebush) —
Ague (f; FEL); Amenorrhea (f; FAD); Anemia (f; FAD); Arthrosis (f; FAD; JAH2:45); Bacteria (1; FNF); Bruise (f; FAD; FEL); Cold (1; DEM; FAD; FNF); Colic (f; FAD; FEL); Congestion (1; FNF); Cough (f; FAD); Cramp (1; FAD; FNF); Croup (f; FAD);
Dermatosis (1; FEL; FNF); Dysentery (f; BOW); Dysmenorrhea (f; FAD); Enterosis (f; BOW);
Fatigue (f; EB48:333); Fever (f; FAD; FEL); Flu (1; FNF; JAH2:45); Fungus (1; FNF); Gas (f; FAD; FEL); Gonorrhea (f; DEM); Hives (f; HAD); Infection (1; FNF); Inflammation (1; FNF);
Itch (f; FEL); Malaria (f; EB48:333); Measles (f; HAD); Myosis (f; FAD); Nausea (f; JAH2:45);
Nervousness (f; FEL); Neuralgia (f; EB48:333); Pain (1; DEM; FNF); Parasite (f; BOW); Phthisis (f; HAD); Pulmonosis (f; EB48:333); Respirosis (f; EB48:333); Rheumatism (1; FAD; FEL; FNF); Sinusosis (f; JAH2:45); Spasm (1; FNF); Swelling (f; HAD); Syphilis (f; DEM); Tuberculosis (f; HAD); Typhoid (f; FAD; FEL); VD (f; DEM); Worm (f; BOW; DEM; FEL); Yeast (1; ABS; FNF).
Spicebush for cold/flu:
• Analgesic: borneol; myrcene; p-cymene
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; myrcene
• Antiallergic: 1,8-cineole; terpinen-4-ol
• Antibacterial: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; delta-cadinene; limonene; myrcene; p-cymene; terpinen-4-ol
• Antibronchitic: 1,8-cineole; borneol
• Antiflu: alpha-pinene; limonene; p-cymene
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-curcumene; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; borneol; caryophyllene-oxide
• Antioxidant: camphene; gamma-terpinene; myrcene
• Antipharyngitic: 1,8-cineole
• Antipyretic: borneol
• Antirhinoviral: beta-bisabolene; beta-sesquiphellandrene
• Antiseptic: 1,8-cineole; alpha-terpineol; beta-pinene; limonene; terpinen-4-ol
• Antitussive: 1,8-cineole; terpinen-4-ol
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; beta-bisabolene; limonene; p-cymene
• Expectorant: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; beta-phellandrene; beta-sesquiphellandrene; camphene; limonene
Spicebush for fungus:
• Analgesic: borneol; myrcene; p-cymene
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; myrcene
• Antibacterial: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; delta-cadinene; limonene; myrcene; p-cymene; terpinen-4-ol
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-curcumene; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; borneol; caryophyl-lene-oxide
• Antiseptic: 1,8-cineole; alpha-terpineol; beta-pinene; limonene; terpinen-4-ol
• Candidicide: 1,8-cineole; beta-pinene
• Candidistat: limonene
• Fungicide: 1,8-cineole; alpha-phellandrene; beta-phellandrene; caryophyllene-oxide; myrcene; p-cymene; terpinen-4-ol; terpinolene
• Fungistat: limonene
Other Uses (Spicebush) —
An aromatic tea is made from young leaves, twigs, and fruits, which contain a fragrant EO. The twigs are best gathered when in flower, as the nectar adds considerably to the flavor (FAC). Pioneers of Ohio and African Americans use young twigs and leaves as a substitute for spice and tea. Cherokee and Chippewa Indians used the plant to make herb teas and used the leaves, and/or seeds or twigs, to flavor or mask the flavor of naturally strong meats, like groundhog and ‘possum (DEM). Iroquois and Ojibwa used leaves and twigs to brew teas and season meat (EB48:333). Herbal vinegar made from the twigs and fruits was used to preserve beets. Fruits can be used as a spice in baking (Winston, 2001). Dried and powdered fruits can be used as a substitute for allspice. Dried leaves are great in potpourri (TAD). The new bark makes a pleasant antiseptic chewstick, and can be used, frayed, like a toothbrush (FAC, HAD, TAD).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2, et al., 2002.
Cultivation (Spicebush) —
Tucker and DeBaggio (2000) give us some cultural detail, recommending this spicebush as an excellent background in shaded herb gardens. Hardy from zone 9-4 (BOW), spicebush grows naturally in shady situations but will survive full sun if adequately watered. It seems to fare best in subacid soils, rich in organic matter, and can be propagated by divisions in spring (TAD) and by seed in fall (BOW). Bown (2001) suggests moist acid soil and partial shade.
Chemistry (Spicebush) —
Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in spicebush. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium, and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
Alpha-Phellandrene —
Dermal; Emetic; Fungicide; Insectiphile; Irritant; Laxative.
Borneol — Allelochemic; Analgesic; Antiacetytlcholine; Antibacterial MIC = 125-250 ng/ml; Antibronchitic; Antiescherichic MIC = 125 ng/ml; Antifeedant; Antiinflammatory; Antiotitic; Antipyretic; Antisalmonella MIC = 125 | g/ml; Antispasmodic ED50 = 0.008 mg/ml; Antistaphylococcic
MIC = 250 | g/ml; Candidicide MIC = 250 | g/ml; Choleretic; CNS-Stimulant; CNS-Toxic; Fungicide; Hepatoprotectant; Herbicide IC50 = 470 mM, IC50 = 470 \\M; Inhalant; Insectifuge; Irritant; Myorelaxant; Negative Chronotropic 29 | g/ml; Negative Inotropic 29 | g/ml; Nematicide MLC = 1 mg/ml; Sedative; Tranquilizer; LDlo = 2000 orl rbt.
Camphene — Antilithic; Antioxidant; Expectorant; Hypocholesterolemic; Insectifuge; Spas-mogenic.
Laurotetanine — Curaroid; Cytotoxic.
Limonene — ACHe-Inhibitor; Allelochemic; Antiacetylcholinesterase IC22-26 = 1.2 mM; Antibacterial; Anticancer; Antifeedant; Antiflu; Antilithic; Antimutagenic; Antiseptic; Antispasmodic ED50 = 0.197 mg/ml; Antitumor; Antitumor (Breast); Antitumor (Pancreas); Antitumor (Prostate); Antiviral; Candidistat; Chemopreventive; Detoxicant; Enterocontractant; Expectorant; Fungistat; Fungiphilic; Herbicide IC50 = 45 | M; Insectifuge; Insecticide; Irritant; Nematicide IC = 100 | g/ml; ODC-Inhibitor ~750 mg/kg (diet); p450-Inducer; Photosensitizer; Sedative ED = 1-32 mg/kg; Transdermal; LD50 = 4600 orl rat.
Myrcene — Analgesic; Anesthetic 10-20 mg/kg ipr mus, 20-40 mg/kg scu mus; Antibacterial; Anticonvulsant; Antimutagenic; Antinitrosaminic; Antioxidant; Antipyretic; Antispasmodic; Fungicide; Insectifuge; Irritant; p450(2B1)-Inhibitor IC50 = 0.14 \xM.
