Capparis spinosa L. (Capparaceae) Caper, Caperbush (Medicine)

Capparis spinosa L. (Capparaceae) Caper, Caperbush

Synonym —

Capparis rupestris Sm.

Medicinal Uses (Caper) —

The caper contains some of the same isothiocyanates found in the mustard family and may serve a similar role medicinally. Root and root bark of the Biblical caper, prepared variously (malagmas, cataplasms, drunk with wine or vinegar, etc.), are folk remedies for indurations (of the bladder, kidney, liver, spleen, and uterus), tumors in general, and warts (JLH). The root bark is viewed as alterative, analgesic, aperient, aphrodisiac, astringent, diuretic, emme-nagogue, expectorant, stimulant, tonic, and vermifue, and is used in rheumatism, scurvy, enlarged spleen, sclerosis (spleen), tubercular glands, and toothache. Unani use the juice to kill worms; they also consider the root bark aperient, analgesic, emmenagogue, expectorant, and vermifuge, and use it in adenopathy, paralysis, rheumatism, splenomegaly, and toothache. Broken leaves are used as a poultice in gout. Tender stems are used for dysentery. According to Biblical scholars Moldenke and Moldenke (1952), the caper is a stimulant, exciting both hunger and thirst and thus strengthening the appetite when it becomes a bit sluggish. Bedouins are said to use caper with Teucrium pilosum as an inhalant for colds. Bedouins boil the chopped or powdered leaves in water and inhale the vapors for headache. For arthritic-like pains of the back, joints and limbs, they boil the ground leaves and poultice them, wrapped in thin cloth, to the ache, even as they sleep. Barren women are covered with a mixture of ground leaves of Capparis and Tamarix to inhale the vapors and sweat to correct their barrenness. Lebanese boil the root and plant for dengue, malaria, and Malta fever. Lebanese regard the roots as specific for malaria or splenomegaly following malaria. Iranians use it for intermittent fever and rheumatism. Algerians boil the whole plant in oil as a puerperal hydragogue. Crushed seeds have been suggested for dysmenorrhea, female sterility, ganglions, scrofula, and ulcers. The capers themselves have been suggested for atherosclerosis, chills, ophthalmia, and sciatica, especially in North Africa. Fruits, considered antiscorbutic, are used for colds, dropsy, and sciatica (BIB). Capers are eaten as food farmacy, for dry skin.
Shirwaikar et al. (1996) found antihepatotoxic activity in alcoholic, ether, ethyl acetate, and petrol extracts of the root bark of the caper, all of which reduced the elevated serum transaminases. The various extracts were administered orally to rats up to 2000 mg/kg, with no evident toxicity or mortality (Shirwaikar et al., 1996).


Indications (Caper) —

Adenosis (f; BIB; JLH); Aging (f; BIB); Arthrosis (f; BIB); Atherosclerosis (f; BIB); Bleeding (f; BOW); Cancer (1; BIB; FNF); Cancer, abdomen (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, bladder (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, colon (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, groin (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, head (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, kidney (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, liver (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, neck (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, spleen (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uterus (1; FNF; JLH); Cataract (f; BIB); Chill (f;
BIB); Cirrhosis (f; WO2); Cold (f; BIB); Conjunctivosis (f; BOW); Cough (f; BOW); Cramp (1; FNF); Cystosis (f; JLF); Dengue (f; BIB); Diarrhea (f; BOW); Dropsy (f; BIB); Dysentery (f; BIB); Dysmenorrhea (f; BIB); Enterosis (f; BOW); Fracture (f; BIB); Gastrosis (f; BOW); Gout (f; SKJ;
WO2); Headache (f; BIB); Hepatosis (1; FNF; JLH; WO2); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f; BOW); Inflammation (1; FNF); Infertility (f; BIB); Malaria (f; BIB); Malta Fever (f; BIB); Nephrosis (f;
JLH; WO2); Ophthalmia (f; BIB); Otosis (f; BIB); Pain (f; BIB); Paralysis (f; HAD); Rheumatism
(f; WO2); Sclerosis (f; BIB); Sciatica (f; BIB); Scurvy (1; WO2); Scrofula (f; BIB); Snakebite (f;
BIB); Splenomegaly (f; BIB); Splenosis (f; BIB; WO2); Toothache (f; BIB); Tuberculosis (1; BIB; WO2); Tumor (f; BIB); Ulcer (f; BIB); Uterosis (f; JLH); Wart (f; BIB; JLH).

Caper for cancer:

• AntiHIV: quercetin
• Antiaggregant: coumarin; quercetin; vitamin-e
• Antiaging: vitamin-e
• Antiandrogenic: coumarin
• Anticancer: coumarin; mucilage; quercetin; rutin; sinigrin; vitamin-e
• Antifibrosarcomic: quercetin
• Antihepatotoxic: glucuronic-acid; quercetin; rutin
• Antiinflammatory: coumarin; quercetin; rutin; vitamin-e
• Antileukemic: beta-sitosterol-beta-d-glucoside; quercetin; vitamin-e
• Antileukotriene: quercetin; vitamin-e
• Antilipoperoxidant: quercetin
• Antimelanomic: coumarin; quercetin
• Antimetastatic: coumarin
• Antimutagenic: coumarin; quercetin; rutin
• Antinitrosaminic: quercetin; vitamin-e
• Antioxidant: quercetin; rutin; vitamin-e
• Antiperoxidant: quercetin
• Antiproliferant: quercetin; vitamin-e
• Antitumor: beta-sitosterol-beta-d-glucoside; coumarin; quercetin; rutin; vitamin-e
• Antiviral: quercetin; rutin
• Apoptotic: quercetin; vitamin-e
• COX-2-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Chemopreventive: coumarin
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Cytotoxic: quercetin
• Hepatoprotective: quercetin; vitamin-e
• Immunostimulant: coumarin; vitamin-e
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: quercetin; rutin; vitamin-e
• Lymphocytogenic: coumarin
• Lymphokinetic: coumarin
• Mast-Cell-Stabilizer: quercetin
• Ornithine-Decarboxylase-Inhibitor: quercetin; vitamin-e
• p450-Inducer: quercetin
• PTK-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Protein-Kinase-C-Inhibitor: quercetin; vitamin-e
• Sunscreen: rutin
• Topoisomerase-II-Inhibitor: quercetin; rutin
• Tyrosine-Kinase-Inhibitor: quercetin

Caper for hepatosis:

• Antiedemic: coumarin; rutin
• Antihepatotoxic: glucuronic-acid; quercetin; rutin
• Antiherpetic: quercetin; rutin; vitamin-e
• Antiinflammatory: coumarin; quercetin; rutin; vitamin-e
• Antileukotriene: quercetin; vitamin-e
• Antilipoperoxidant: quercetin
• Antioxidant: quercetin; rutin; vitamin-e
• Antiperoxidant: quercetin
• Antiradicular: quercetin; rutin; vitamin-e
• Antivaricose: rutin
• Antiviral: quercetin; rutin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Detoxicant: glucuronic-acid
• Hepatoprotective: quercetin; vitamin-e
• Immunostimulant: coumarin; vitamin-e
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: quercetin; rutin; vitamin-e
• Phagocytotic: coumarin; sinigrin

Other Uses (Caper) —

The young pickled buds of the caper give the Biblical “desire” or relish to food; “.. .fears shall be in the way, and the almond tree shall flourish, and the grasshopper shall be a burden, and desire shall fail.. .because man goeth to his long home…” (Ecclesiastes 12). Today, in the Mediterranean islands, capers are gathered and steeped in vinegar for an appetizer. Capers are unusual in that they are the flower buds used as the condiment in cooking. They are used to flavor canapes, gravies, salads, and sauces, after being cooked and pickled. Raw capers are all but unpalatable and much improved in the pickling process. Bay leaves, black pepper, and/or tarragon are good in the pickling vinegar (TAD). Some favor capers pickled in sea salt. Some French sauces graced with capers include ravigote, remoulade, tartare, and some vinaigrettes (TAD). Rinzler (1990) notes they are particularly good in a sour cream sauce (RIN). For pickling, one kilo of buds is steeped in one kilo of brine vinegar for a month. Capers can be substituted for oriental fermented black beans (toushi). Sprouts are sometimes eaten like asparagus, as well as the buds and shoots. In California, where they prune the shrubs back to the ground, the new shoots are eaten as a delicacy in spring. Pickled fruits are eaten in the Punjab and Arabia, as well as in Cyprus, where branch tips are also pickled. They are also grown for the large ornamental white and purple flowers. The timber is said to resist termites (BIB, FAC, RIN).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Caper) —

Hardy only to zone 9, capers are best grown in full sun, well-drained sandy soils of pH 6.3-8.3. Plants will freeze back at least to the ground at 32°F (0°C). Treated seed sown in sandy soil under glass in the spring; plants then transplanted outdoors during warm, settled weather. Seeds should first be treated with a dilute sulfuric acid or permanganate. May be propagated also from cuttings of short shoots planted in a sandy soil in frames in a glasshouse. In the North, it is grown by training the long slender shoots on a trellis in a glasshouse, or by treating the plant as a tender annual and planting it outdoors when weather permits. The shrub produces a profusion of flowers in the summer and is often grown as an ornamental. In the South, it can be grown outdoors. In southern California, where hardy, rooted cuttings are outplanted in February-March, spaced 16 x 16 feet (5 x 5 m). During the next two years, they may require two or three irrigations. Each plant might be fertilized with 72 lb (lk-lh kg) 16-16-16 fertilizer. Plants are pruned back to the ground each year. Flower buds are harvested from May to August. In Spain, intercropping with cereals is recommended and said to increase the yield of capers. Harvest manually the flower buds before they show any color. A three-year-old bush can yield more than 2 lb of buds per year, four-year-olds and older >20 pounds/year (CFR, TAD).

Chemistry (Caper) —

Small wonder the plant has so much anticancer folklore, containing such antitumor compounds as beta-sitosterol, beta-sitosterol-beta-d-glucoside, citric-acid, coumarin, quercetin, and rutin, as well as indole glucosinolates and isothiocyanates. Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in caper. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium, and 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
Beta-Sitosterol — ADI = 9-30 g/day/man; Androgenic; Anorectic; Antiadenomic; Antiandrogenic; Antibacterial; Anticancer; Antiestrogenic; Antiedemic IC54 = 320 mg/kg orl; Antifeedant; Antifer-tility; Antigonadotropic; Antiinflammatory; Antileukemic; Antilymphomic; Antimutagenic 250 Ig/mL; Antiophidic 2.3 mg mus; Antiprogestational; Antiprostaglandin (30 mg/day/12 wk); Anti-prostatadenomic; Antiprostatitic 10-20 mg/3x/day/orl man; Antitumor (Breast); Antitumor (Cervix); Antitumor (Lung); Antiviral; Artemicide LC50 = 110 ppm; Candidicide; Estrogenic; Gona-dotropic; Hepatoprotective; Hypocholesterolemic 2-6 g/man/day/orl; Hypoglycemic; Hypolipidemic 2-6 g/day; Hypolipoproteinaemic; Spermicide; Ubiquict; Ulcerogenic 500 mg/kg ipr rat; LD50 = 3000 mg/kg ipr mus; LDlo = >10,000 inj rat.
Beta-Sitosterol-Beta-D-Glucoside — Antileukemic; Antispasmodic (20 mg/kg); Antitumor; Hypoglycemic.
Citric-Acid—See also Hibiscus sabdariffa. Coumarin — See also Dipteryx odorata. Quercetin — See also Alpinia officinarum.
Rutin — Aldose-Reductase-Inhibitor; Allelochemic; Anesthetic; Antiapoplectic; Antiatherogenic; Antibacterial; Anticancer; Anticapillary-Fragility 20-100 mg orl man; Anticataract; Anticlastogenic; Anticonvulsant; AntiCVI 270 mg/man/day; Antidementic; Antidermatitic; Antidiabetic; Antiedemic 270 mg/day/orl man; Antierythemic; Antifeedant; Antiglaucomic 60 mg/day; Antihematuric; Anti-hemorrhoidal; Antihepatotoxic; Antiherpetic; Antihistaminic; Antiinflammatory 20 mg/kg; Antimalarial IC50 = >100 Ig/ml; Antimutagenic ID50 = 2-5 nM; Antinephrotic; Antioxidant IC28 = 30 ppm, IC50 = 120 |iM; Antipurpuric; Antiradicular (9 x quercetin); Antispasmodic; Antisunburn; Antithrombogenic; Antitumor-Promoter; Antitrypanosomic 100 mg/kg; Antiulcer; Antivaricose; Antiviral; cAMP-Phosphodiesterase-Inhibitor; Catabolic; Estrogenic?; Hemostat; Hepatomagenic 20,000 ppm (diet) rat; Hypocholesterolemic; Hypotensive; Insecticide; Insectiphile; Juvabional; Larvistat IC95 = 4000-8000 ppm diet; Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor IC75 = 2.5 mM; Mutagenic; Myo-relaxant; Oviposition-stimulant; Radioprotective; Sunscreen; Topoisomerase-II-Inhibitor IC50 = 1 Ig/ml; Vasoconstrictor; LD50 = 950 (ivn mus).

Capsicum spp. L. (Solanaceae) Bird Chilli, Bird Pepper, Chili Pepper, Hot Pepper, Red Chili, Spur Pepper, Tabasco Pepper

Capsicum spp. L. (Solanaceae) Bird Chilli, Bird Pepper, Chili Pepper, Hot Pepper, Red Chili, Spur Pepper, Tabasco Pepper

Synonyms —

Capsicum minimum Blanco, Capsicum fastigiatum Bl.

Medicinal Uses (Hot Pepper) —

Tabascos are highly regarded as disease preventives, like garlic and onion, with which it is often mixed. Finely powdered seed or fruit given in delirium tremens. Cayenne pepper used externally as stimulant, counterirritant, and rubefacient; internally as a digestive, and to dispel gas and rouse the appetite. Navajo are said to use cayenne in weaning children from breast feeding (Libster, 2002). Remember that milk will dissolve some capsaicin. Experimentally, red pepper is hypoglycemic.
Many medicinal properties depend on amount of capsaicin (0.2-1%) present. Fruit from Africa is highest in capsaicin. Capsaicin, the major pungent principle, stimulates salivation and sweating. Some people suggest capsicum for alopecia. Weed (2002) says re alopecia, “Avoid cayenne. Heroic herbalists say it increases hair growth by improving blood circulation to the scalp. But when there is hair loss, says Janet Roberts, MD, specialist in women’s hair loss and member of the Oregon Menopause Network, there are inflamed follicles. Cayenne increases inflammation, ultimately increasing hair loss” (Weed, 2002). Warming herbs like cayenne, cinnamon, and ginger may increase energy but may increase hot flashes, too (Weed, 2002).
Andrews (1995) cites the work of Irwin Ziment, UCLA School of Medicine, who routinely prescribes hot spices such as black pepper, ginger, horseradish, hot pepper, and mustard for asthma, bronchitis, and other chronic respiratory tract problems. But this was all probably part of the Mayan tradition. Ziment recommends a chilli a day, ca. one three-inch cayenne-type, with meals. Capsicum may be helpful in colds, coughs, or hay fever. Capsaicin irritates the mucous membranes lining the nose and throat, causing them to weep a watery secretion, “making it easier for you to cough up mucus or clear your nose when you blow” (RIN). And heating up that chicken soup with hot pepper may be a pleasant decongestant for colds (HAD, RIN). The oral LD50 is 97-294 mg/kg in mice, meaning that to ingest a lethal dose, I, a 220 lb (100 kg) rat, would need ingest some 135-415 oz of hot pepper. No way (TAD).
Alcoholics seem to have an affinity for hot peppers. Today, there’s the Bloody; tomorrow, the hot pepper for the hangover. According to Libster (2002), in the wild, wild west, cayenne was believed the best remedy for the DTs. People ingested capsicum in soup to help alleviate the craving for alcohol and for the nausea of too much alcohol. Hot peppers were believed to prevent vomiting, tonify the stomach, and promote digestion in alcoholics (Libster, 2002). Mandram is a West Indian stomachic preparation of mashed chilies in Madeira wine, with cucumber, shallot, chives or onions, and lime juice. Said to aid alcoholics by reducing dilated blood vessels, thus relieving chronic congestion.
Lavishing antiseptic praise on Louisiana hot sauce, Andrews (1995) cites LSU studies that showed that straight Louisiana hot sauce killed all the bacteria in a test tube within a minute. Even at a dilution of 1:16, it killed them in 5 min. For ostreaphiles, the hot sauce killed Vibrio vulnificus, a germ that makes oyster-eating dangerous. Sharma et al. (2000) showed that, though bactericidal on their own, extracts of black pepper, Capsicum, and turmeric partially protected Bacillus mega-terium, Bacillus pumilus, and Escherichia from radiation, probably protecting their DNA. Chile was strongest. While there is no record to my knowledge of Capsicum combating Bacillus anthracis, cayenne inhibits Bacillus cereus and B. subtilis, Clostridium spp, and Streptococcus pyogenes, at least in vitro (Libster, 2002). Chile was antiseptic to Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Sac-charomyces cerevisiae confirming traditional uses of spices as food preservatives, disinfectants, and antiseptics (De et al., 1999). And, rightly or wrongly, Andrews (1995) reports that hot pepper repels some big critters too—dogs from garbage cans, squirrels from bulb plantings and birdseed in bird feeders, cats from flowerbeds, burrowing armadillos, and children who suck coins out of slot machines, not to mention weaning children off the breast.
The liniment made from the fruit is said to be a folk remedy for indolent tumors and indurated mammae. The whole plant, steeped in milk, is said to remedy hardened tumors (JLH). In a review paper, Buchanan (1978) reported that feeding rats a protein-deficient diet containing 10% chili peppers produced a 54% incidence of hepatomas, suggesting that capsaicin may contribute to the etiology of human liver cancer, particularly in those regions where dietary protein is minimal. Authors have reported that red peppers are carcinogenic or co-carcinogenic. Still, the low incidence of gastric cancers in Latin America has suggested to others that the hot pepper might be anticar-cinogenic. Even the American Cancer Institute, an agency that also recommends tamoxifen, a carcinogen, for the prevention of cancer, also admits that diets rich in foods well endowed with beta-carotene may lower the risks of some types of cancer. Red peppers are rich in carotenoids and richer in ascorbic acid than citrus (TAD). But capsaicin may be a double-edged sword. Studies on the toxicity, mutagenic, and carcinogenic/co-carcinogenic activities of capsaicin had conflicting results, most depending on the dose. Most studies have shown that low consumption of chiles is beneficial, while high consumption may be deleterious. Chile consumption may create a risk for gastric cancer, but it also protects against aspirin-induced injury of the gastroduodenal mucosa in humans and exhibits a protective factor against peptic ulcers. Orally administered capsaicin also exhibits chemoprotective activities against some chemical carcinogens and mutagens, but one study in Chile found that gallbladder carcinoma was correlated with the high intake of both green and red chiles (TAD). Translation: all things in moderation. Rats fed 10% chili had a higher incidence of liver tumors than controls. The latest study available to me showed that rats fed diets with 500 ppm capsaicin diets had 60% fewer colon cancers (Yoshitani et al., 2001). Andrews (1995) evokes a personal communication from Peter Gannett, one of the earlier scientists who showed that, in absurd quantities (corresponding to several pounds of hot pepper a day for life), capsaicin might be mutagenic or tumorigenic. Gannet told Andrews that the protective effects of capsaicin seem to outweigh any carcinogenic or mutagenic potential.
According to Joseph et al. (2002), green peppers are better at blocking nitrosamine than tomatoes (JNU), all the more reason to add green pepper with your red pepper to those barbecues (JAD). As one of the best sources of ORAC antioxidants in general, containing ascorbic acid, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin, peppers are colorful additions to your medicine chest as well, when you consider all the diseases those nutrients are reported to prevent or alleviate.
Red pepper contains twice the vitamin C and nine times the vitamin A equivalent of green peppers. Mix and match! Enjoy!
Wood (1993) edited a whole topic on capsaicin and pain. Andrews (1995) presents a beautifully illustrated topic with 34 color plates, all on Capsicum. She too has a great section on pain. Although giving us a formula for homemade capsaicin cream, Andrews confesses that she herself indulges in the store-bought analgesic, Zostrix, which costs more than $38 per oz. She was, like so many writers, suffering from writer’s arthritis, if not carpal tunnel syndrome. She rubbed her arthritic fingers slowly four times a day and experienced “blessed relief in less than three weeks.” She also found that it abated the pain of elbow tendinitis and carpal tunnel syndrome in the thumb. To make 16 oz “capsaid,” you’ll need 8 oz of ripe Habaneros, a pint of glycerine or inert mineral oil, and an ounce of broken beeswax or paraffin. Microwave the peppers ca. 3 min with 1-2 tbsp water in a sealed polyethylene bag, until the stems are easy to remove. Strain the water off the peppers, remove the stem, and macerate or chop, with the seeds. Put peppers with oil in pot; bring slowly to a boil, lower heat, and simmer 4 hr, then cool for 4 hr. Repeat two times for a total of 12 hr cooking, 12 hr cooling. Strain the pulp, expressing the juice to go through the strain. Discard the residue. Blend in electric blender the pureed pulp and oil. Strain one more time through fine metal strainer lined with one-ply tissue paper. Return to clean pan, adding the beeswax or paraffin and melting carefully over low heat, stirring until well blended. Cool slightly and pour into plastic vials or flat container jars in which your salve can harden, hopefully not too much (Andrews, 1995, adapted from Jeanne Rose’s The Aromatherapy topic).

Indications (Hot Pepper) —

Adenoma (1; X11604990); Ague (f; IED); Alcoholism (1; PHR; PH2; WO2); Allergy (1; FNF); Angina (f; LIB); Anorexia (1; APA; PHR; WBB; WO2); Anorexia nervosa (f; PH2); Arrhythmia (1; FNF); Arthrosis (Pain) (1; APA; BGB; FNF; SKY); Asthma (1; JFM; JNU); Atherosclerosis (1; PHR; PH2); Bacillus (1; X10548758); Backache (1; APA; WBB); Bacteria (1; FNF; X10548758); Bleeding (f; DAD); Boil (f; IED; JFM); Bronchosis (1; APA); Burn (f; LIB); Bursitis (1; SKY); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; JLH); Cancer, colon (1; X11604990); Cancer, nose (f; JLH); Cancer, skin (f; JLH); Cardiopathy (1; FNF; PHR; PH2); Cataract (1; DAD); Chick-enpox (1; APA); Chilblains (1; BGB; PNC; WO2); Childbirth (1; 60P); Chill (f; APA); Cholera (f; IED; PH2; JAF49:31010); Chromhidrosis (1; LIB); Circulosis (1; WAM); Cluster Headache (1; APA); Cold (1; APA; FNF; JFM; RIN); Colic (1; APA; FNF; JFM; PNC); Congestion (1; DAD; FNF; JFM);
Cough (f; JFM; PH2); Cramp (2; FNF; KOM; PH2); Cystosis (f; LIB); Delirium (f; LIB); Diabetes
(1; APA); Diabetic Neuropathy (1; SKY); Diarrhea (f; PHR; PH2); Diphtheria (f; LIB); Dropsy (f; IED); Dyspepsia (1; APA; BGB; IED; PH2; WO2); Dyspnea (f; DAV); Earache (f; IED); Edema (f; PH2); Enterosis (f; PH2); Epithelioma (f; JLH); Escherichia (1; X10548758); Fever (1; IED; PHR;
PH2; TAD); Flu (1; DAV; FNF); Frostbite (f; BGB; PHR; PH2; SPI); Fungus (1; X10548758); Gangrene (f; LIB); Gas (1; APA; DAV); Gastrosis (1; JFM; PH2; TRA; WO2); Giddiness (f; IED);
Gout (f; IED; PH2); Hay Fever (1; RIN); Headache (1; APA; WAM); Head Cold (1; RIN); Hemorrhoid (f; IED; JFM; WBB); Hepatosis (f; WBB; WO2); Herpes Zoster (1; DAV; SKY); High Blood Pressure (1; FNF); High Cholesterol (1; APA; FNF; TRA); High Triglycerides (1; APA); Hoarseness (f; PHR); Impotence (f; LIB; PHR); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; FNF; IED; PH2); Inflammation (1; FNF; TRA; WO2); Inorgasmia (f; PHR); Ischemia (1; FNF); Itch (2; ABS); Kernel (f; JLH); Laryngosis
(f; PNC); Lumbago (1; APA; PHR; PH2; PNC); Malaria (f; IED; PHR; PH2); Mastosis (f; JLH);
Mycosis (1; X10548758); Myosis (2; APA; KOM; PHR; PH2; PNC); Nephrosis (f; LIB); Neuralgia (1; APA; SKY; WO2); Neuropathy (1; TAD); Obesity (1; FNF; HAD); Osteoarthrosis (1; LIB; TAD);
Otosis (f; PH2); Pain (2; APA; BGB; FNF; PH2; WBB); Pharyngosis (1; DAD; PH2); Plague (f;
WBB); Pneumonia (f; LIB); Proctosis (f; LIB); Prurigo (2; ABS); Psoriasis (1; APA; FNF; SKY); Pulmonosis (f; IED; 60P); Respirosis (f; IED); Rheumatism (2; APA; FNF; PHR; PH2; TRA); Rhinosis (f; JLH); Scarlet Fever (f; PH2); Sciatica (1; PH2); Seasickness (f; PH2); Shingles (1; APA); Snakebite
(f; IED; 60P); Sore (f; LIB); Sore Throat (1; JFM; PHR; PH2); Sprain (1; APA); Strain (1; APA);
Stomachache (f; JAF49:3101); Stomatosis (f; LIB); Stroke (1; PHR; PH2); Streptococcus (1; LIB);
Swelling (f; DAD; WBB); Tachycardia (1; FNF); Tennis Elbow (1; JAD); Tension (2; PH2); Thumb-Sucking (1; APA; BGB); Thyrosis (f; PED); Tonsilosis (f; LIB); Toothache (1; DAV; 60P); Typhoid (f; IED); Typhus (f; JAF49:3101); Ulcer (f; BGB; LIB); UTI (f; PH2); Varicosis (1; JAD; WBB; WO2); Virus (1; WO2); Water Retention (1; FNF); Wound (1; JFM; WO2); Xerostoma (1; FNF); Yeast (1; X10548758); Yellow Fever (f; JAF49:3101; PH2).

Hot Pepper for cardiopathy:

• ACE-Inhibitor: alpha-terpineol; myrcene
• Antiaggregant: alpha-linolenic-acid; caffeic-acid; capsaicin; ferulic-acid; quercetin; sal-icylates
• Antiarrhythmic: apiin; capsaicin; ferulic-acid; scopoletin
• Antiatherogenic: rutin
• Antiatherosclerotic: lutein; quercetin
• Antiedemic: caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; rutin; scopoletin
• Antihemorrhagic: phylloquinone
• Antihemorrhoidal: rutin
• Antiischemic: capsaicin
• Antioxidant: caffeic-acid; capsaicin; chlorogenic-acid; ferulic-acid; hesperidin; lutein; myrcene; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; rutin; scopoletin
• Antitachycardic: capsaicin; solasodine
• Antithrombic: ferulic-acid; quercetin
• Arteriodilator: ferulic-acid
• COX-2-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Calcium-Antagonist: caffeic-acid; capsaicin; hesperidin; solanine
• Cardiotonic: capsaicin; solanine
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: capsaicin; hesperidin; quercetin
• Diuretic: asparagine; betaine; caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; terpinen-4-ol
• Hypocholesterolemic: beta-ionone; caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; dihydrocapsaicin; rutin
• Hypotensive: 1,8-cineole; alpha-linolenic-acid; phylloquinone; quercetin; rutin; scopole-tin; valeric-acid
• Sedative: 1,8-cineole; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; caffeic-acid; carvone; caryophyl-lene; isovaleric-acid; limonene; pulegone; solanine; valeric-acid
• Vasodilator: capsaicin; quercetin
Hot Pepper for cold/flu:
• Analgesic: caffeic-acid; camphor; capsaicin; chlorogenic-acid; ferulic-acid; hesperidin; myrcene; quercetin; scopoletin; solanine
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; benzaldehyde; camphor; capsaicin; cinnamic-acid; myrcene
• Antiallergic: 1,8-cineole; ferulic-acid; quercetin; terpinen-4-ol
• Antibacterial: 1,8-cineole; acetic-acid; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; beta-ionone; caf-feic-acid; caryophyllene; chlorogenic-acid; cinnamic-acid; delta-3-carene; ferulic-acid; limonene; myrcene; p-coumaric-acid; pulegone; quercetin; rutin; scopoletin; terpinen-4-ol; thujone
• Antibronchitic: 1,8-cineole; solanine
• Antiflu: caffeic-acid; hesperidin; limonene; quercetin
• Antihistaminic: caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; hesperidin; pulegone; quercetin; rutin
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-linolenic-acid; beta-pinene; caffeic-acid; capsaicin; caryophyl-lene; chlorogenic-acid; cinnamic-acid; delta-3-carene; ferulic-acid; hesperidin; quercetin; rutin; salicylates; scopoletin; solasodine
• Antioxidant: caffeic-acid; capsaicin; chlorogenic-acid; ferulic-acid; hesperidin; lutein; myrcene; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; rutin; scopoletin
• Antipharyngitic: 1,8-cineole; quercetin
• Antipyretic: pulegone; salicylates
• Antiseptic: 1,8-cineole; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; beta-pinene; caffeic-acid; camphor; capsaicin; carvone; chlorogenic-acid; limonene; oxalic-acid; scopoletin; terpinen-4-ol; thujone
• Antitussive: 1,8-cineole; terpinen-4-ol
• Antiviral: caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; ferulic-acid; hesperidin; limonene; quercetin; rutin
• Bronchorelaxant: scopoletin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: capsaicin; hesperidin; quercetin
• Decongestant: camphor
• Expectorant: 1,8-cineole; acetic-acid; camphor; limonene
• Immunostimulant: alpha-linolenic-acid; benzaldehyde; caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; ferulic-acid
• Interferonogenic: chlorogenic-acid
• Phagocytotic: ferulic-acid
Hot Pepper for rheumatism:
• Analgesic: caffeic-acid; camphor; capsaicin; chlorogenic-acid; ferulic-acid; hesperidin; myrcene; quercetin; scopoletin; solanine
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; benzaldehyde; camphor; capsaicin; cinnamic-acid; myrcene
• Antidermatitic: quercetin; rutin
• Antiedemic: caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; rutin; scopoletin
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-linolenic-acid; beta-pinene; caffeic-acid; capsaicin; caryophyl-lene; chlorogenic-acid; cinnamic-acid; delta-3-carene; ferulic-acid; hesperidin; quercetin; rutin; salicylates; scopoletin; solasodine
• Antiprostaglandin: caffeic-acid; hesperidin; scopoletin
• Antispasmodic: 1,8-cineole; apiin; benzaldehyde; caffeic-acid; camphor; capsaicin; caryophyllene; cinnamic-acid; ferulic-acid; limonene; myrcene; p-coumaric-acid; quer-cetin; rutin; scopoletin; thujone; valeric-acid
• COX-2-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Counterirritant: 1,8-cineole; camphor; thujone
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: capsaicin; hesperidin; quercetin
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; cinnamic-acid; hesperidin; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; rutin
• Myorelaxant: 1,8-cineole; rutin; scopoletin; valeric-acid

Other Uses (Hot Pepper) —

Source of cayenne pepper and chili powder, used in tabasco sauce and other preparations. Ground red pepper, or cayenne pepper, is a sharp, hot powder made from dried ripe chiles. Ground red pepper is an ingredient in many spice blends, particularly chili powder (red cayenne, 83%; cumin (or substitute ground caraway), 9%; oregano, 4%; salt, 2.5%; and garlic powder, 1.5%) (RIN). Cayenne pepper is incorporated in laying mixtures for poultry. Extract used in manufacture of ginger beer and other beverages. The hot piquant fruits are pickled, and used as a spice, or made into hot pepper sauce. Young leaves and tops of the stems are occasionally steamed and eaten as vegetables. In Thailand, juice from the leaves adds color and that hot, spicy flavor to curries (FAC). For a hot/cold treat, try a sprinkling of candied green jalapeno over chocolate ice cream (Arndt, 1999).
And don’t get the stuff on your fingers and then touch your sensitive mucous membranes. Water will not cut capsaicin — not even soapy water. Alkaline materials like chlorine or ammonia will ionize the capsaicins, permitting them to go into solution. Tucker and Debaggio (2000) suggest, after handling hot peppers, washing the hands with ammonia or chlorine bleach, which turns capsaicin into water soluble salts. Rinzler (1990) mentions that capsaicin does dissolve in alcohol, milk fat, and vinegar (RIN). For burning in the mouth, cheap vodka may be the best alternative. Some people drink tomato juice or eat a fresh lemon or lime to stop the burning, the theory being that the acid counteracts the alkalinity of the capsaicin. If you overdo a hot pepper, the best coolants are milk, yogurt, sour cream, and other dairy products — say, ice cream. They are also useful in removing residue from the hands. Casein in dairy products breaks the bond of capsaicin with the pain receptors in the mouth. So milk works, too, if you don’t like or have vodka (TAD). Beer, bread, rice, and tortillas can also help (AAR).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Hot Pepper) —

Cultivation is same as for C. annuum, except that it takes longer for C. frutescens peppers to mature. Peppers, perennial and hardy only in frost-free situations, treated as annuals in frost country. They fare well in full sun, friable and porous soils, moist but not constantly wet, pH 4.3-8.7 (average 6.1). Germination takes 6-10 days. One kilogram of seed produces 15,000-17,000 plants, enough to plant a hectare. Seed are sown in seedbeds early in spring (mid March) and transplanted to fields in 7-8 weeks, spaced about 60 cm apart, in rows 90-120 cm apart. Seedlings from field sown seed are thinned to 30-45 cm apart. Grown monoculture, can be transplanted and cultivated by machine. Irrigation may be necessary. Frequent shallow cultivation is necessary to control weeds until harvesting begins. Do not plant peppers where tomatoes or potatoes have grown within 3 years or where peppers were grown the previous season. Irrigation, used when necessary, can increase yields sixfold. Soil should have adequate nutrients to keep peppers growing well. Stable manure or complete fertilizer should be used on field before planting, with side dressings in late May or June. Inorganic gardeners use sprays as soon as insects are evident. In warm weather, early cultivars (cvs) mature in 3-4 months; other cvs may require 4-5 months. Fruits are harvested manually, every 7 days. Fruit of paprika is dried with artificial heat in barns or sundried. Harvest continues until frost or adversity. In India, peppers are grown under dry conditions in rotation with sorghums, groundnut, and millet, and under irrigation with sugarcane and corn. Plants degenerate under cultivation in 1-2 years. Re C. annuum, the seeds remain viable for 2-3 years. Like tomatoes, green or red peppers may be ripened artificially, between 21.50C and 250C being best for ripening. At 00C, peppers may be kept in good condition for about 30 days or more, with 95-98% relative humidity advised. Maximum yields rarely exceed 10 tons/ha. In spacing studies in Georgia, yields of 7.5 to 15 tons/ha of pimentos are reported. (See DAD for more.)

Chemistry (Hot Pepper) —

The active ingredient capsaicin is very heavily studied as an analgesic (Wood, 1993). Patel and Srinivasan (1985) noted that dietary capsaicin significantly increased lipase, maltase, and sucrase activities. Capsaicin causes contact dermatitis. Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in hot pepper. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
Beta-Carotene — Androgenic?; Antiacne; Antiaging; Antiasthmatic; Anticancer 22 ppm; Anticar-cinomic; Anticoronary 50 mg/man/2 days; Antiichythyotic; Antileukoplakic; Antilupus 150 mg/man/day/2 mo; Antimastitic; Antimutagenic; Antioxidant; Antiozenic; Antiphotophobic 30-300 mg man/day; AntiPMS; Antiporphyric 30-300 mg/man/day; Antipityriasic; Antiproliferant; Antip-soriac; Antiradicular; Antistress; Antitumor; Antiulcer 12 mg/3x/day/man/orl; Antixerophthalmic; Colorant; Hypokeratotic; Immunostimulant 180 mg/man/day/orl; Interferon-Synergist; Mucogenic;
Phagocytotic; Prooxidant 20 |ig/g; Thymoprotective; Ubiquict; RDA = 2.25-7.8 mg/day; PTD = 15-30 mg/day; LD50 = >1000 mg/kg orl rat.
Beta-Crypotxanthin — Antiproliferant; Antitumor (5 x carotene); Antitumor (Breast); Antitumor (Cervix); Colorant; Vitamin-A-Activity.
Capsaicin — Adrenergic; Analgesic; Anaphylactic; Anesthetic; Antiaggregant; Antiarrhythmic 100 |lM; Anticancer; Anticolonospasmic; Antiinflammatory; Antiischemic 100 [iM; Antimastalgic; Antineuralgic; Antineuritic; Antinitrosaminic; Antiodontalgic; Antioxidant; Antipsoriatic; Antipyretic 7 mg/kg; Antiseptic; Antispasmodic; AntiSubstance-P; Antitachycardic 100 [iM; Antitumor (Lung); Antiulcer; ATPase-Inhibitor; Bronchoconstrictor; Calcium-Antagonist 100 | M; Carcinogenic; Cardiotonic; Catabolic; Catecholaminigenic; Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor; Cytochrome-p450-Inhibitor; Diaphoretic; Digestive; Endocrinactive 50 mg/kg scu rat; Irritant; Lactase-Promoter; Laxative; 5-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor; Maltase-Promoter; Mutagenic; Neurotoxic; Repellent; Radio-protective; Respirasensitizer; Rubefacient; Secretagogue; Sialagogue; Sucrase-Promoter; Tachy-phylactic; Thermogenic; Vasodilator; LDlo = 1.6 ivn cat; LD50 = 0.56 ivn mus; LD50 = 7.56 ipr mus; LD50 = 10 ipr rat; LD50 = 47 mg/kg orl rat; LD50 = 190 orl mus; LD50 97-294 orl mus;
LD50 = 9.00 scu mus.
Capsidol — Fungicide; Phytoalexin.
Lutein — Antiatherosclerotic; Antimaculitic; Antinyctalopic; Antiproliferant; Antitumor (Breast); Antitumor (Colon); Antioxidant; Antiradicular; Cardioprotctive; Colorant; Prooxidant 5-40 | g/g; Quinone-Reductase-Inducer 2.5 |lg; Retinoprotectant Optometry; Ubiquict.
Zeaxanthin — Antitumor (Breast); Colorant; Hepatoprotective; Quinone-Reductase-Inducer.

Carum carvi L. (Apiaceae) Caraway

Carum carvi L. (Apiaceae)Caraway

Synonym —

Carum velenovskyi Rohlena

Medicinal Uses (Caraway) —

Antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, lactagogue, laxative, stimulant, and stomachic,
caraway has been used to alleviate alopecia, bruises, cholera, earache, fistula, halitosis, headache, hookworm, hysteria, impotence, prolapse, sores, and syphilis (LIL). Chinese use the roots for arthralgia, convulsions, fever, flu, headache, and tetanus. Enteric-coated and non-enteric-coated caraway-peppermint oil combinations are safe preparations which act locally causing smooth muscle relaxation. I think even my colonoscopist uses it, surely the peppermint, to keep my colon from cramping down on his scope. This myorelaxant effect may explain results observed in clinical trials with patients suffering functional dyspepsia (Micklefield et al., 2000).
Weed (2002) suggests heavy consumption of certain spices when estrogen levels are down. Seeds like caraway, celery, coriander, cumin, poppy and sesame, mustard and anise, fennel and fenugreek all contain phytoestrogens, as do their oils, says Weed. She suggests using these seeds "lavishly" when cooking or making tea with any one of them, drinking 3—4 cups a day "for best results" (Weed, 2002). One nursing formula recommends any one of the aromatic umbelliferous seeds, caraway, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel, or anise, with raspberry or nettle leaves and blessed thistle or borage leaves. The caraway seeds "increase milk production and tone the digestive system; their powers are carried through the breast milk and into the child, curtailing colic and indigestion" (Weed, 1985).
Caraway seed oil is both antibacterial and antispasmodic, and inhibits skin tumors (TAD). The oil also has antihistaminic, fungicidal, and larvicidal properties. EOs of caraway are extremely active relative to the tuberculosis bacterium.
The monoterpenoid limonene has received a lot of favorable press lately, especially relative to breast cancer. Limonene not only inhibits the initiation of cancer in the lung, mammaries, and forestomach, it can even lead to regression in mammary cancers (in rats). And I find that those things proving useful for breast cancers usually prove useful in other hormone-dependent cancers, like colon and prostate. Shwaireb et al. (1995) showed that rats whose diet consisted of 20% caraway and watercress, both good soup ingredients that could be spiced up with turmeric and other anticancer spices, might prevent breast cancer. Caraway afforded nearly 50% protection, watercress 28.5%. Huang et al. (1994) indicated that d-carvone, at 200 \\M was equivalent to d-limonene at 200 \\M at least at inhibiting lung and forestomach cancer. Our caraway seed, richest source of limonene (up to 3%), is also one of the richest sources of carvone (up to nearly 4.5%). It also contains perillyl-alcohol.
Boik (2001) mentions limonene first among monoterpenes he deems valuable against cancer. He cites 15 in vitro and 7 animal studies suggesting that monoterpenes inhibit a variety of and induce regressions in tumor lines. The anticancer effects of limonene have been studied intensively at the University of Wisconsin. While Boik specifies orange oil as a major source, he admits that some commercial orange oils contain no detectable limonene. But caraway and celeryseed are the best whole plant sources in my database, attaining levels potentially as high as 3% and 2.5%, respectively. At levels lower than 1% in rat diet, limonene inhibited experimental breast cancer development. One of the major modes of monoterpene action may be in detoxification. The related terpene, perillyl alcohol, is 5-10 times more potent in inhibiting breast cancer. Both limonene and perillyl alcohol are rapidly metabolized to perillic acid. At 2% of diet (ca. 1,500 mg/kg), perillyl alcohol reduced chemically induced liver tumor masses tenfold. Apoptosis was markedly increased. Much lower doses (75-150 mg/kg) prevented the incidence of chemically induced rodent colon cancer. Boik notes that, as so often, the chemopreventive dose is lower than the antitumor effect, in this case the preventive dose is 1/10th to 1/20th the tumor reduction level. Boik assumes, and I find this a reasonable assumption after pondering synergy for two decades, a full fifteenfold increase in potency due to synergistic interactions. "Synergistic interactions are probably necessary for limonene and perillyl alcohol to produce an anticancer effect" (BO2). (For more details see the Synergy Principle topic in Kaufman et al., 1998.) Like other compounds Boik discusses, monot-erpenes "will be most effective when taken in at least three divided doses per day" (BO2). Boik warns that, as with other drugs and pure solitary phytochemicals, tumor cells may evolve resistance to monoterpenes (BO2). But I am not arguing for isolated phytochemicals; I argue only for
phytochemicals in their natural context. If Boik is correct, we can roughly convert rat dosage data (in mg/kg) to estimated human dosage data simply by dividing by 4 (or 4.319 for the purist), mouse data dividing by 7 (or 7.28 for the purist). But oversimplifying, it took a hypothetical 730 mg/kg for a mouse, and 430 mg/kg for a rat; it would only take a manageable 100 mg/kg for me, which if I calculate correctly translates to 10 g for my 100 kg body.
Remember, it is caraway seed, not rye seed, that adorn most rye breads. So be sure and eat your crust, if like me, you are genetically targeted for colon cancer. Rye bran, even better than soy, prevented colonic crypts in animals (Davies et al., 1999).

Indications (Caraway) —

Alactea (f; EFS); Allergy (1; FNF); Alzheimer's (1; FNF); Anemia (1; APA); Anorexia (2; HHB; KOM; PIP); Bacteria (1; FNF; HH2; PH2; WO2); Bronchosis (2; FNF; PHR); Cancer (1; BO2; FNF); Cancer, breast (1; BO2; FNF); Cancer, colon (1; BO2; FNF); Cancer, liver (1; BO2; FNF); Cancer, pancreas (1; BO2; FNF); Cancer, prostate (1; BO2; FNF); Cancer, stomach (1; BO2; FNF); Candida (1; FNF; PHR); Cardiopathy (f; PHR; PH2); Chole-cystosis (2; PHR); Cold (2; APA; FNF; PHR); Colic (1; DEP; KOM; PIP; WO2); Congestion (1; FNF); Cough (2; APA; FNF; PHR); Cramp (1; DEP; FNF; PHR; PH2; SHT; WO2); Dermatosis (f; PH2); Diarrhea (f; BOW); Dysmenorrhea (f; APA); Dyspepsia (1; APA; DEP; HHB; KOM; PHR; SHT); Ectoparasite (f; HHB); Enterosis (f; DEP; PH2); Fever (2; PHR); Flu (1; FNF); Fungus (1; FNF; HH2; WO2); Gas (1; HHB; KOM; SHT); Gastrosis (1; PH2; PIP; PNC WO2);
Hemorrhoid (f; DEP); Hepatosis (2; FNF; PHR); Hernia (f; BOW); Hiatal Hernia (f; BOW);
Immunodepression (1; FNF); Incontinence (f; APA); Infection (1; FNF; HH2; PHR; PH2); Inflammation (1; FNF); Laryngosis (f; BOW); Lumbago (f; WO2); Melanoma (1; FNF); Mete-orism (f; PHR); Myosis (1; APA) Nausea (f; APA); Nervousness (f; PHR); Neurosis (f; PH2);
Ophthalmia (f; DEP); Pain (1; FNF); Pharyngosis (2; PHR); Pleurosis (1; HHB); Rheumatism
(1; HHB; WO2); Scabies (1; WO2); Stomachache (1; PNC); Stomatosis (2; FNF; PHR); Stone (1; FNF); Trichomonas (1; FNF); Ulcer (f; BOW); Uterosis (f; DEP); Water Retention (f; EFS); Worm (1; DEP; EFS; FNF); Yeast (1; HH2; PH2).

Caraway for cancer:

• 5-Alpha-Reductase-Inhibitor: alpha-linolenic-acid
• AntiEBV: geranial
• AntiHIV: caffeic-acid; methanol; quercetin
• Antiaggregant: alpha-linolenic-acid; caffeic-acid; falcarindiol; kaempferol; myristicin; quercetin; salicylates
• Anticancer: alpha-linolenic-acid; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; beta-myrcene; caffeic-acid; carvone; decan-1-al; hyperoside; isoquercitrin; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; myristicin; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; quercetin-3-o-beta-d-glucoside; scopoletin; umbelliferone; xanthotoxin
• Anticarcinogenic: caffeic-acid
• Antifibrosarcomic: quercetin
• Antihepatotoxic: caffeic-acid; hyperoside; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; scopoletin
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-linolenic-acid; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; caffeic-acid; car-vacrol; delta-3-carene; hyperoside; kaempferol; myristicin; quercetin; quercetin-3-o-beta-d-glucoside; quercetin-3-o-beta-d-glucuronide; salicylates; scopoletin; umbellif-erone; xanthotoxin
• Antileukemic: astragalin; kaempferol; quercetin
• Antileukotriene: caffeic-acid; quercetin
• Antilipoperoxidant: quercetin
• Antilymphomic: xanthotoxin
• Antimelanomic: carvacrol; perillaldehyde; perillyl-alcohol; quercetin
• Antimetastatic: alpha-linolenic-acid
• Antimutagenic: caffeic-acid; falcarindiol; kaempferol; limonene; myrcene; quercetin; scopoletin; umbelliferone; xanthotoxin
• Antinitrosaminic: caffeic-acid; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin
• Antioxidant: caffeic-acid; camphene; carvacrol; gamma-terpinene; hyperoside; isoquer-citrin; kaempferol; myrcene; myristicin; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; scopoletin
• Antiperoxidant: caffeic-acid; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin
• Antiproliferant: perillyl-alcohol; quercetin
• Antiprostaglandin: caffeic-acid; carvacrol; scopoletin; umbelliferone
• Antistress: myristicin
• Antitumor: caffeic-acid; isoquercitrin; kaempferol; limonene; p-coumaric-acid; querce-tin; scopoletin; xanthotoxin
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; caffeic-acid; geranial; hyperoside; kaempferol; limonene; lina-lool; p-cymene; quercetin
• Apoptotic: kaempferol; perillyl-alcohol; quercetin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: kaempferol; quercetin
• Chemopreventive: limonene; perillyl-alcohol
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: carvacrol; kaempferol; quercetin
• Cytochrome-p450-Inducer: 1,8-cineole
• Cytoprotective: caffeic-acid
• Cytotoxic: caffeic-acid; falcarindiol; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; scopoletin; xanthotoxin
• Hepatoprotective: caffeic-acid; herniarin; isorhamnetin-3-galactoside; isorhamnetin-3-glucoside; quercetin; scopoletin
• Hepatotonic: 1,8-cineole
• Immunostimulant: alpha-linolenic-acid; astragalin; caffeic-acid
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: caffeic-acid; kaempferol; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; umbellif-erone
• Lymphocytogenic: alpha-linolenic-acid
• Mast-Cell-Stabilizer: quercetin
• Ornithine-Decarboxylase-Inhibitor: caffeic-acid; limonene; quercetin
• p450-Inducer: 1,8-cineole; quercetin
• PTK-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Phytohormonal: scopoletin
• Prostaglandigenic: caffeic-acid; p-coumaric-acid
• Protein-Kinase-C-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Sunscreen: caffeic-acid; umbelliferone
• Topoisomerase-II-Inhibitor: isoquercitrin; kaempferol; quercetin
• Tyrosine-Kinase-Inhibitor: quercetin
Caraway for cold/flu:
• Analgesic: caffeic-acid; falcarindiol; myrcene; p-cymene; quercetin; scopoletin
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; carvacrol; linalool; myrcene; myristicin
• Antiallergic: 1,8-cineole; herniarin; kaempferol; linalool; quercetin; terpinen-4-ol
• Antibacterial: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; caffeic-acid; carvacrol; cit-ronellol; cuminaldehyde; delta-3-carene; falcarindiol; geranial; herniarin; hyperoside; isoquercitrin; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; myrcene; p-coumaric-acid; p-cymene; perillaldehyde; perillyl-alcohol; quercetin; scopoletin; terpinen-4-ol; thujone; umbellif-erone; xanthotoxin
• Antibronchitic: 1,8-cineole
• Antiflu: alpha-pinene; caffeic-acid; hyperoside; limonene; p-cymene; quercetin
• Antihistaminic: caffeic-acid; kaempferol; linalool; quercetin; umbelliferone; xanthotoxin
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-linolenic-acid; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; caffeic-acid; car-vacrol; delta-3-carene; hyperoside; kaempferol; myristicin; quercetin; quercetin-3-o-beta-d-glucoside; quercetin-3-o-beta-d-glucuronide; salicylates; scopoletin; umbellif-erone; xanthotoxin
• Antioxidant: caffeic-acid; camphene; carvacrol; gamma-terpinene; hyperoside; isoquer-citrin; kaempferol; myrcene; myristicin; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; scopoletin
• Antipharyngitic: 1,8-cineole; quercetin
• Antipyretic: salicylates
• Antiseptic: 1,8-cineole; alpha-terpineol; beta-pinene; caffeic-acid; carvacrol; carvone; citronellol; furfural; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; n-nonanal; scopoletin; terpinen-4-ol; thujone; umbelliferone
• Antistress: myristicin
• Antitussive: 1,8-cineole; carvacrol; terpinen-4-ol
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; caffeic-acid; geranial; hyperoside; kaempferol; limonene; lina-lool; p-cymene; quercetin
• Bronchorelaxant: linalool; scopoletin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: kaempferol; quercetin
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: carvacrol; kaempferol; quercetin
• Expectorant: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; astragalin; beta-phellandrene; camphene; carvac-rol; limonene; linalool
• Immunostimulant: alpha-linolenic-acid; astragalin; caffeic-acid

Caraway for hepatosis:

• AntiEBV: geranial
• Antiedemic: caffeic-acid; scopoletin
• Antihepatotoxic: caffeic-acid; hyperoside; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; scopoletin
• Antiherpetic: caffeic-acid; quercetin
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-linolenic-acid; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; caffeic-acid; car-vacrol; delta-3-carene; hyperoside; kaempferol; myristicin; quercetin; quercetin-3-o-beta-d-glucoside; quercetin-3-o-beta-d-glucuronide; salicylates; scopoletin; umbellif-erone; xanthotoxin
• Antileukotriene: caffeic-acid; quercetin
• Antileukotrienogenic: scopoletin
• Antilipoperoxidant: quercetin
• Antioxidant: caffeic-acid; camphene; carvacrol; gamma-terpinene; hyperoside; isoquer-citrin; kaempferol; myrcene; myristicin; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; scopoletin
• Antiperoxidant: caffeic-acid; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin
• Antiprostaglandin: caffeic-acid; carvacrol; scopoletin; umbelliferone
• Antiradicular: caffeic-acid; carvacrol; isoquercitrin; kaempferol; quercetin
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; caffeic-acid; geranial; hyperoside; kaempferol; limonene; lina-lool; p-cymene; quercetin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: kaempferol; quercetin
• Cholagogue: caffeic-acid; herniarin; scopoletin
• Choleretic: 1,8-cineole; caffeic-acid; kaempferol; p-coumaric-acid; scopoletin; umbellif-erone
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: carvacrol; kaempferol; quercetin
• Cytoprotective: caffeic-acid
• Hepatoprotective: caffeic-acid; herniarin; isorhamnetin-3-galactoside; isorhamnetin-3 glucoside; quercetin; scopoletin
• Hepatotonic: 1,8-cineole
• Hepatotropic: caffeic-acid
• Immunostimulant: alpha-linolenic-acid; astragalin; caffeic-acid
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: caffeic-acid; kaempferol; p-coumaric-acid; quercetin; umbellif-erone

Other Uses (Caraway) —

Lovers who ate caraway seed were said to always remain faithful, and articles containing the seed were said never to be stolen, in the old folklore. The seed on American rye breads, also essential on Kosher Rye, caraway has many culinary uses. Traditional with beet, cabbage, and carrot, it is often served with baked apples, other fruits, and breadstuffs. It is used with goulash and roast pork. Cheeses, soups, and vinegars are also flavored with caraway. Seeds should be added after the dish is almost ready, as prolonged cooking renders them bitter (RIN). Several liqueurs utilize caraway, e.g., Aquavit, Danzig, Danzigerwasser, Goldvasser, Kummel, L 'hui1e de Venus, and certain types of Schnapps and Brandies. One lusty liqueur called "Layaway" (a Jim  original) consists of 1 oz each seeds of caraway, anise, and fennel, steeped in one pint vodka and strained. In Scotland, buttered bread is dipped into a saucer of caraway seed. Unbroken seed retain their aroma if stored in air tight container and protected from light. Ground or mashed caraway seed can be substituted for cummin in homemade chili powders and curries. Seeds are also used with sugar-coated plums and taken as a breath freshener and digestive aid after spicy meals. Seeds are crushed and brewed into a tea. The seed oil is used commercially in ice cream, candy, pickles, soft drinks, etc. Caraway leaves may be chopped up and used as a parsley substitute. The young leaves form a good salad, while older ones may be boiled and served like spinach or added to soups and stews. Roots are boiled and eaten or chopped and used in soups, especially in northern Europe. (DEP,FAC, LIL).
Potential Carawade (alias limonenade) Ingredients (all herbs or spices, if you count the citrus peel as spice. I enjoy beverages combining any of these that I have on hand)

PPM
Apium graveolens Celeryseed 530-24,700 SD
Carum carvi Caraway 7860-30,180 SD
Citrus aurantiifolia Lime 2795-6400 FR
Citrus aurantium Sour orange 1000-8000 FR
Citrus limon Lemon 2796-8000 EO
Citrus reticulata Tangerine 6500-9400 FR
Citrus sinensis Orange 8300-9700 FR
Elettaria cardamomum Cardamom 595-9480 FR
Foeniculum vulgare Fennel 200-9420 FR
Illicium verum Star-anise 100-5220 FR
Mentha spicata Spearmint 200-5725 FR
Myristica fragrans Nutmeg 720-5760 FR
Thymus vulgaris Thyme 15-5200 PL

For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Caraway) —

Hardy zones 3-9, caraway fares well in full sun, in light or humus-rich soils, wet but not constantly wet, pH 4.8-7.8. (average 6.4). Flowering and dying in its second season, the biennial caraway does well on well-prepared, upland fertile soil. Seeds (11,000/oz; 390/g) are sown (ca. 4-6 lb/a) in spring or autumn, and thinned to 8-12 in apart
in rows. Seed germinate best at 59°F (15°C) for 8 hr and 50°F (10°C) for 16 hr. Germination is optimal after soaking the seed 3-6 days and drying for 4 hr before planting. Israeli's like ca. 30 plants per square yard (37 per square meter) (TAD). There should be two to three plants per foot in rows ca. 30 in apart. Seed will not mature until the second season; hence caraway is good for intercropping with such annuals as beans, coriander, dill, mustard, and peas. After intercrops are harvested the first year, caraway need only be weeded until it matures the second year. Large growers are mechanized, from mechanical drilling of the seed, and mechanized cultivation, on to mechanized harvesting and threshing. The small herbalist may cut the plants to dry, using a sickle or scythe, or may pull up the plants or cut off the tops one by one. One can expect about 1.3 cups of seed per plant. Seed yields usually run about 500-2000 lb/acre. There is a residual ton of straw, which can serve as animal food (Rosengarten, 1973). Seed must be dried and stored in a dry place. Ripe seed can be dried in the sun or over low heat, stirring occasionally. Some herbalists suggest the seeds be sterilized with scalding hot water to get rid of insect pests. Seed can also be salt-cured, frozen, or steeped in vinegar (LIL, TAD, 1987).

Chemistry (Caraway) —

Rinzler (1990) seems to seek out the negative in her useful topic, so she mentions that carvone and limonene are irritants. "Limonene is also a photosensitizer, a chemical that makes your skin more sensitive to sunlight" (RIN). I cannot tell where she got her data, but she acknowledges talking with Walter Lewis, Varro Tyler, and myself. Hence, I have added her "photosensitizer" to my database for limonene and cited RIN as the source. Rinzler fails to mention the potential of limonene in breast cancer, and the chemopreventive nature of carvone. My database presents a more balanced (negative and positive) account of the biological activities of limonene, including the newly reported photosensitizer. Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in caraway. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database .

Carvacrol —

See also Cunila origanoides.
Carveol — CNS-Stimulant.

Carvone —

Antiacetylcholinesterase IC50 = 1.4-1.8 mM; Anticancer; Antiseptic (1.5 x phenol); Carminative; CNS-Stimulant; Insecticide; Insectifuge; Motor-Depressant; Nematicide MLC = 1 mg/ml; Sedative; Trichomonicide LD100 = 300 ng/ml; Vermicide; LD50 = 1640 (orl rat).

Limonene —

ACHe-Inhibitor; Allelochemic; Antiacetylcholinesterase IC22-26 = 1.2 mM; Antibacterial; Anticancer; Antifeedant; Antiflu; Antilithic; Antimutagenic; Antiseptic; Antispasmodic ED50 = 0.197 mg/ml; Antitumor; Antitumor (Breast); Antitumor (Pancreas); Antitumor (Prostate); Antiviral; Candidistat; Chemopreventive; Detoxicant; Enterocontractant; Expectorant; Fungistat; Fungiphilic; Herbicide IC50 = 45 |jM; Insectifuge; Insecticide; Irritant; Nematicide IC = 100 ng/ml; ODC-Inhibitor ~750 mg/kg (diet); p450-Inducer; Photosensitizer; Sedative ED = 1-32 mg/kg;
Transdermal; LD50 = 4600 (orl rat).

Ceratonia siliqua L. (Fabaceae) Carob, Locust Bean, St. John's-Bread

Ceratonia siliqua L. (Fabaceae) Carob, Locust Bean, St. John's-Bread

Medicinal Uses (Carob) —

Seeds were once sold at a high price by pharmacists, with singers imagining they cleared the voice. The pod is used as an anticatarrhal, demulcent, and resolvent, the leaf as astringent (LEG). In southern Europe, the pods are used for asthma and cough. Various portions of the plant are used as antitussive, astringent, pectoral, and laxative. Since the pods contain gallic acid, a reported antitumor compound, and seeds contain tannins, it seems logical that carob has a folk reputation against cancer (specifically verruca and indurations). Medicinally, the bean germ flour is used for diabetic foods, and the bean pulp is used to treat infantile diarrhea. Leung (1980) mentions folk usage of carob flour for infantile diarrhea and a pod decoction for catarrhal infection. Suffering from salmonella diarrhea in Panama, I was put on a diet of carob flour and was subsequently cured, either by carob or coincidence. Leung adds that the flour is considered binding, the flowers laxative (LAF). Still today, Dr. Linda White suggests for diarrhea adding carob to applesauce or other pectin containing gentle-on-the-bowels foods (White et al., 2000).
Like pectin, fiber-laden carob, fed to rats given a high cholesterol diet, controlled elevations in blood and liver cholesterol. Rats fed a fiber-free diet containing 1% cholesterol exhibited a small increase in serum cholesterol and a fivefold increase in liver cholesterol. Addition of 10% pectin or 10% locust bean gum kept the increase in liver cholesterol down to 100% (Kritchevsky, 1982).

Indications (Carob) —

Asthma (f; BIB); Bacteria (1; FNF); Candida (1; FNF); Catarrh (f; BIB; PNC); Celiac (f; PH2); Childbirth (f; PH2); Colitis (f; PH2); Cough (f; BIB; HHB; PH2; WO2); Cramp (1; FNF); Dehydration (f; WO2); Diabetes (1; FNF; LAF; WO2); Diarrhea (2; DAW; FNF; HHB; SKY); Dyspepsia (2; FNF; SKY; WO2); Enterosis (f; PH2); Heartburn (1; SKY); High Cholesterol (1; BIB; FNF; LAF); Hyperglycemia (1; LAF); Hyperperistalsis (f; WO2); Induration (f; JLH); Inflammation (1; FNF); Obesity (1; LAF); Sprue (f; PH2); Steatorrhea (f; HHB); Voice (f; PNC); Vomiting (f; PH2); Wart (f; JLH).

Carob for diarrhea:

• Antibacterial: (-)-epicatechin; benzoic-acid; ferulic-acid; gallic-acid; lignin; myricetin; pyrogallol; quercetin
• Antidiarrheic: lignin
• Antispasmodic: ferulic-acid; phloroglucinol; quercetin
• Antiviral: (-)-epicatechin; ferulic-acid; gallic-acid; lignin; myricetin; quercetin
• Astringent: formic-acid; gallic-acid
• Candidicide: ferulic-acid; myricetin; pyrogallol; quercetin
• Demulcent: mucilage
• Hepatoprotective: (+)-catechin; ferulic-acid; quercetin Carob for high cholesterol:
• Antiaggregant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; ferulic-acid; quercetin; salicylates
• Antiatherosclerotic: quercetin
• Antidiabetic: (-)-epicatechin; maltose; pinitol; quercetin
• Antilipoperoxidant: (-)-epicatechin; quercetin
• Antioxidant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; delta-5-avenasterol; ferulic-acid; gallic-acid; l-alanine; lignin; myricetin; pyrogallol; quercetin
• Cholagogue: ferulic-acid
• Choleretic: benzoic-acid; ferulic-acid; gallic-acid
• Diuretic: myricetin
• Hepatoprotective: (+)-catechin; ferulic-acid; quercetin
• Hypocholesterolemic: (-)-epicatechin; lignin
• Hypolipidemic: ferulic-acid
• Hypotensive: quercetin

Other Uses (Carob) —

Primarily cultivated for its fruit (pod) and seeds, both are high in sugar and calcium content and low in protein and fats. Carob seeds are said to be the ancient and original weight used by goldsmiths, instituted early as the carat weight. The fruit, source of food for the poor in Jewish folklore, also appears in the Christian tradition as "St. John's Bread," eaten by St. John the Baptist in the wilderness. The locust fruit is spread out and dried as food, sustaining for cattle as well as for people. In the Prodigal Son story, the younger son asked for his inheritance, which he spent quickly and unwisely. When he had no money or food left, he hired himself out as a swine tender. And since he had no bread, he longed to eat the carob pods fed to swine. The pods were said to have been the only food available for cavalry horses in Wellington's Peninsular Campaign and in Allenby's Campaign in old Palestine. In the U.K., the pods have been used to make dog biscuits. Now carob has been elevated from cattle, dog, horse, and swine feed, to health food as a chocolate substitute. It is especially recommended to those sensitive to chocolate. On April 25, 1982, in Burtonsville, land, carob-coated walnuts sold for $2.89 a pound, more fitting for a profligate son. In Palestine, a molasses named "dibs" is prepared from the ripe fruits. In Cyprus, a brittle candy known as "pasteli" is made from the pods. Alcoholic beverages have been made from infusions of the pod, probably like the algarobinya I enjoyed in Cusco, Peru, made from the related legume, Prosopis. Matter of fact, I welcomed in the New Year 2000 with algarobinya at Machu Picchu. Each harvest, one carob tree may carry eight hundred pounds of husks. Seeds are equal to other grains in nutritive value. From the ground endosperm, gum is made, known as locust bean gum, gum tragon, tragasol, carubin, and carob flour. The gum has great water-absorbing qualities and makes an excellent stabilizer, used in many food products [such as ice cream, pickles, salad dressings, and sauces (FAC)], in the manufacture of jellies, in the manufacture of paper, in cosmetics and drugs, and in the chemical industry. The pods are of equal importance, being even higher in sugar content than the seeds, and are popularly used in foodstuffs, juices, and flour for bread and macaroni. The sugar can be extracted from the pods by alcohol, and the molasses obtained as a by-product can be fermented to ethanol. Roast seeds have been used as a coffee substitute. Wood is hard and heavy and is used locally to make furniture and wheels. Bark contains ca. 50% tannin. Carob is also used in textile printing, synthetic resins, insecticides, and fungicides. American imports are mostly used in tobacco flavorings, and cosmetics.
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al. 2002.

Cultivation (Carob) —

Can be propagated by seed, grafting, or cuttings. Seeds, removed from the pods soon after maturity, before hardening, are mixed with coarse sand and kept moist in a greenhouse or between layers of sterilized sacking or burlap. When they start swelling they are planted in a propagating bed, composed of clay rolled and packed hard, upon which the seeds are placed and covered lightly with sand and good soil to the depth of 1.2 cm. When seedlings show two sets of leaves, they are transferred to 6.5 cm pots with clay soil, the transplants being allowed to stand 24 hr without water. Then they are watered freely. When ca. 12-15 cm high, they are transferred to good potting soil in one-gallon cans or boxes 15 x 20 x 20 cm. When 1-1.8 m tall, saplings are outplanted 7 m each way in poor rocky soil, or 12-14 m each way in good fertile soil. On hillsides, the trees can best be set in terraces constructed on the contour. Seedlings are slow bearers, and sex is indeterminable for a long time; hence, budding or grafting on known stocks is better. Cuttings may be started with bottom heat, careful treatment, and hormones. Grafting the third year is best, only onto the healthiest plants. It seems best to graft onto the branches, not the stem, leaving the smaller branches to utilize the winter deposit of sap. Such branches may be cut off the following year. Seedlings may be budded the second year in the field when the stalk is about 0.8 cm in diameter. The tree is usually grown as a rain-fed crop, but irrigated crops bear better. Shallow cultivation can disturb the roots. Hence, cultivation is not recommended. Oil or chemical herbicides may be used to control insect problems and weeds (LEG).

Chemistry (Carob) —

Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in carob. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
Arginine — Antidiabetic?; Antiencephalopathic; Antihepatosis; Antiinfertility 4 g/day; Antioxidant?; Aphrodisiac 3 g/day; Diuretic; Hypoammonemic; Pituitary-stimulant; Spermigenic 4 g/day.
Gallic-Acid — ACE-Inhibitor; Analgesic; Antiadenovirus; Antiallergic; Antianaphylactic; Antiasthmatic; Antibacterial MIC = 1000 ng/ml; Antibronchitic; Anticancer; Anticarcinomic ED50 = 3; Antiescherichic; Antifibrinolytic; Antiflu; Antihepatotoxic; Antiherpetic EC50 = >10 ng/ml; Anti-HIV; Antiiflammatory; Antileishmanic EC50 = 4.4 ng/ml; Antimutagenic; Antinitrosaminic; Antioxidant IC44 = 33 ppm; Antiperoxidant IC50 = 69 \\M; Antipolio; Antioxidant (7 x quercetin); Antiradicular (7 x quercetin); Antiseptic; Antistaphylococcic MIC = 1000 ng/ml; Antitumor; Antiviral; Apoptotic; Astringent; Bacteristat; Bronchodilator; Candidicide; Carcinogenic; Choleretic; Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor; Floral-Inhibitor; Gram(-)icide MIC = 1000 ng/ml; Gram(+)icide MIC = 1000 | g/ml; Hemostat; Immunomodulator; Immunosuppressant; Insulin-Sparer; Myorelaxant; Nephrotoxic; Styptic; Topoisomerase-I-Inhibitor; Xanthine-Oxidase-Inhibitor IC50 = 24 |jM; LD50= 5000 orl rbt; LD50 = 4500 scu rat.
Glutamic-Acid — ADI = 120 mg/kg, 5-12/g/man/day; Antalkali? 500-1000 mg/day/orl/man; Anti-epileptic; Antilithic; Antiprostatitic 125-250 mg 3 x day; Antiretardation; Anxiolytic; Hypoam-monemic; Neurotoxic.
Linoleic-Acid — 5-Alpha-Reductase-Inhibitor; Antianaphylactic; Antiarthritic; Antiatheroscle-rotic; Anticancer; Anticoronary; Antieczemic; Antifibrinolytic; Antigranular; Antihistaminic; Antiinflammatory; Antileukotriene-D4 IC50 = 31 \\M; Antimenorrhagic; Anti-MS; Antipros-tatitic; Carcinogenic; Hepatoprotective; Hypocholesterolemic; Immunomodulatory; Insectifuge; Metastatic; Nematicide.
Pectin — Antiatheromic 15 g/man/day; Antibacterial; Anticancer; Antidiabetic 10 g/man/day/orl; Antidiarrheic; Antimutagenic; Antiobesity; Antitumor (Colon); Antitussive; Antiulcer; Chemopre-ventive; Demulcent; Fungicide; Hemostat; Hypocholesterolemic; Hypoglycemic; Peristaltic; LDlo = 1800 unk mus.
Tyrosine — Anticancer; Antidepressant?; Antiencephalopathic; Antiparkinsonian 100 mg/kg day; Antiphenylketonuric; Antiulcer 256 mg scu, 400 mg/kg ipr rat; Monoamine-Precursor.
Cinchona sp. (Rubiaceae), C. pubescens (Vahl), and C. calisaya (Wedd.), formerly C. officinalis (Auct.) Redbark Quinine, Red Cinchona, and Yellowbark Quinine, Yellow Cinchona
As with cinnamon and cassia, I doubt many studies are vouchered and hence doubt whether anyone knows which species they were studying. Lamentable but almost always true.

Medicinal Uses (Cinchona) —

Reportedly analgesic, anesthetic, antiarrhythmic, antimalarial, antiperiodic, antipyretic, astringent, bitter, contraceptive, and tonic properties. The bark and/or its extracts are used in folk remedies for cancer carcinomata, and tumors. Bark is used as a bitter and stomachic; in small doses, it is a mild irritant and stimulant of the gastric mucosa. Powdered bark can be used as a dentifrice.
Quinine is reported to be anesthetic, antiperiodic, antipyretic, antiseptic, astringent, contraceptive, insecticide, schizonticide, stomachic, tonic, and uterotonic. Quinine is used in collyria as an anesthetic, astringent, bactericidal eyewash. Quinine has been used to treat hemorrhoids and varicose veins. Quinine sulfate is used to treat colds and leg cramps. Quinine and moreso quinidine regulate atrial fibrillation and flutter. Quinidine will suppress abnormal rhythms in any heart chamber. Serendipitously, malaria patients treated with Cinchona bark were found to be free of arrhythmia. Quinidine, with antiarrhythmic activity, increases the activity of another plant-derived compound, vincristine, the antileukemic principle from the Madagascar periwinkle. Quinidine is also used to treat hiccups. In 1973, 0.18% (2,758,000) of all prescriptions in the U.S. (1.532 billion) contained quinidine. As often echoed in the popular press, more than 25% of all prescriptions contained one or more active constituents or derivatives now or once obtained from seed plants. Lately, the senior author has enjoyed a triple-antimalarial gin tonic, with a spray of foliage of Artemisia annua, the Chinese “qinghao” with antimalarial artemisine, to commingle with the juniper and cinchona antimalarials in an attractive and tantalizing beverage “gin hao tonic” (DAD). Cold water infusions will not extract the antimalarial alkaloids.
Cinchonidine, cinchonine, quinidine, and quinine are some of the antipyretic compounds in this growing medicine chest called quinine (MPI). From an amebicidal point of view, compounds modified from quinine and quinidine were not as potent as emetine and derivatives. I might mix my ipecac and quinine in Amazonia. Chloro-9-desoxy-quinine and quinidine were least active while 9-desoxy-dihydro derivatives showed fair activity. More compounds which showed slight in vitro activity were also active in vivo, exceptions being 9-desoxy-dihydro quinine and quinidine which were active in vivo (MPI). Morton notes that a mixture of 59% quinine and urea hydrochloride is injected as a sclerosing agent for internal hemorrhoids, hydrocele, varicose veins, and pleural vacities after thoracoplasty. Quinine has recently proved active against the causative agent of “Chagas Disease,” Trypanosoma cruzi.

Indications (Cinchona) —

Adenosis (f; CRC; JLH); Ague (f; FEL); Alcoholism (1; PH2); Alopecia (f; CRC); Amebiasis (1; CRC; FNF; WO2); Anemia (f; FEL; HHB; PH2); Anorexia (2; KOM; PHR; PH2); Arrhythmia (1; FNF; WO2); Arthrosis (f; 60P); Asthma (f; HHB); Bacteria (1; FNF; WO2); Bleeding (1; HHB); Cachexia (f; FEL); Cancer (f; CRC; JLH; PHR;
PH2); Cancer, breast (f; CRC); Cancer, gland (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; CRC); Cancer, mesentery (f; CRC); Cancer, spleen (f; CRC); Carcinomata (f; CRC); Cardopathy (1; CRC;
FNF); Catarrh (f; MPI); Childbirth (f; FEL); Chill (f; 60P); Chlorosis (f; FEL); Cold (1; CRC;
FNF; PNC; 60P); Conjunctivosis (f; FEL); Cough (f; WO2); Cramp (1; CRC; PH2; PNC; 60P); Debility (f; FEL; GMH; PH2); Dermatosis (f; PH2); Diabetes (1; FNF; WO2); Diarrhea (f;
CRC; PH2; 60P); Diphtheria (f; FEL); Dysentery (1; CRC; FNF; MPI; WO2); Dyspepsia (2;
FEL; KOM; PHR; PH2; 60P); Elephantiasis (f; WO2); Embolism (1; FNF); Erysipelas (f; FEL); Felons (f; CRC; JLH); Fever (1; CRC; FNF; JAD; PH2); Flu (1; CRC; FNF; PH2; PNC; WO2);
Gas (2; PHR; PH2); Gastrosis (f; PHR); Gonorrhea (f; FEL); Hangover (f; CRC); Hay Fever
(f; FEL; MPI); Headache (f; FEL; WO2); Heart (1; FNF; MPG); Hemicrania (f; MPI); Hemorrhoid (1; CRC; WO2); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Herpes (1; FNF); Hiccup (f; CRC); High Blood Pressure (1; WO2); Hydrocele (f; CRC); Immunodepression (1; FNF); Infection (1; FNF; MPI); Inflammation (1; FNF; PH2); Lumbago (1; CRC; FNF); Malaria (2; FNF; PHR; PH2; 60P);
Metastasis (f; JLH); Myosis (f; FEL); Myotonia (1; WO2); Neuralgia (f; CRC; FEL; HHB;
MPI; PH2); Neurosis (f; CRC; PH2); Pain (1; FEL; FNF PH2); Palpitation (1; MPG); Paludism
(f; 60P); Pertussis (f; CRC; HHB; MPI); Piles (f; CRC); Pinworm (f; CRC; WO2); Pneumonia (f; FEL; CRC; MPI); Pyemia (f; MPI); Rash (f; PH2); Respirosis (f; PH2); Rheumatism (f;
FEL; MPI); Rhinosis (f; MPI); Sciatica (1; CRC; FNF; PH2); Septicemia (f; CRC); Sore (f; JLH; PHR; PH2); Sore Throat (f; CRC; MPI); Splenomegaly (f; PHR; PH2); Splenosis (f; JLH; MPI); Stomatosis (f; CRC); Sunstroke (f; FEL); Tachycardia (1; 60P); Tonsilosis (1; MPI); Trachoma (f; FEL); Trypanosomiasis (1; FNF); Tumor (f; CRC); Typhoid (f; CRC; FEL); Ulcer (f; JLH); Varicosis (f; CRC; WO2); Virus (1; FNF); Water Retention (1; FNF); Wen (f; JLH); Wound (f; PHR; PH2); Yeast (1; FNF).

Cinchona for cardiopathy:

• ACE-Inhibitor: (-)-epicatechin
• Antiaggregant: (-)-epicatechin; caffeic-acid; cinchonine
• Antiarrhythmic: hydroquinidine; protocatechuic-acid; quinidine
• Antiedemic: caffeic-acid
• Antihemorrhoidal: quinine
• Antiischemic: protocatechuic-acid
• Antioxidant: (-)-epicatechin; alizarin; caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; hyperoside; proto-catechuic-acid
• Antitachycardic: quinidine
• Beta-Adrenergic Receptor Blocker: (-)-epicatechin
• Calcium-Antagonist: alizarin; caffeic-acid; chrysazin
• Cardiotonic: (-)-epicatechin
• Diuretic: caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; hyperoside; avicularin
• Hypocholesterolemic: caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; (-)-epicatechin
• Hypotensive: hyperoside; quinidine
• Sedative: caffeic-acid
• Vasodilator: (-)-epicatechin

Cinchona for malaria:

• Amebicide: cinchonamine; quinidine; quinine
• Antibacterial: (-)-epicatechin; alizarin; alizarin-2-methyl-ether; caffeic-acid; chloro-genic-acid; hyperoside; protocatechuic-acid; purpurin-1-methyl-ether; quinine
• Antihepatotoxic: caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; hyperoside; protocatechuic-acid
• Antiinflammatory: (-)-epicatechin; caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; hyperoside; protocat-echuic-acid; quinovic-acid
• Antimalarial: cinchonidine; cinchonine; dihydroquinidine; hydroquinidine; quinidine; quinidinone; quinine
• Antipyretic: cinchonidine; cinchonine; quinidine; quinine
• Antiseptic: caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid
• Antitrypanosomic: quinine
• Antiviral: (-)-epicatechin; caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; cinchonain-III-b; cinchonidine; hyperoside; protocatechuic-acid
• Hepatoprotective: alizarin; caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid
• Immunostimulant: (-)-epicatechin; caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; protocatechuic-acid
• MDR-Inhibitor: cinchonine; quinidine
• Protisticide: quinine

Other Uses (Cinchona) —

Quinine inhibits meat decay and yeast fermentation. Cinchona extracts in hair tonics are said to promote and stimulate hair growth. Quinine and cinchona extracts are used in quinine and tonic waters, bitters, and liqueurs (up to 278 ppm red cinchona extract in alcoholic beverages); also in baked goods, candies, condiments, frozen dairy desserts, and relishes. Red cinchona bark extracts are used to flavor baked goods, bitters, candies, condiments, ice creams, liqueurs (like Campari and Dubonnet), and relishes (FAC). Cinchona barks approved in the U.S. for use in beverages only, not to exceed 83 ppm in the finished beverage (§172.510; §172.575). Cinchona bark is still used for tanning after extraction for alkaloids (DAD).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Cinchona) —

Can be propagated by seed, cuttings, or grafting, the method used depending upon economic factors and purpose for which plants are desired. Freshly harvested seed give 90-98% germination. Seed remain viable 5-48 months, depending on storage method; best stored in the dark at 7-240C at 33-66% relative humidity. Seed are small, about 2500/g. Seeds do not germinate in darkness, even though all other factors are favorable. They require an optimal light intensity for germination between 30-75 foot candles for 6 hr during the brightest part of the day; optimal germination temperature is 24-29.50C with a rapid loss above this. Seeds planted in nursery in raised beds with overhead protection from sun and rain. Beds usually located on lower slopes of hills, not on valley bottoms. In Philippines, 2.5 g of seed sown per meter of bed; in Uganda, 1.5 g/m of bed. Use of sphagnum moss seems to prevent fungal disease, but forest soil topped with 2.5 cm of sphagnum works well. Seedlings are very susceptible to damping-off disease. Keep seedbeds evenly moist and seeds germinate in 3-4 weeks. Seedlings are moved to shaded transplant beds when 5-7.5 cm tall, at about 4-6 months of age, where they remain until about 2 m tall and have become gradually accustomed to sunlight. When trees have reached proper height, they are side grafted. In Philippines, seedlings are field planted when 20-30 cm tall; in Java, they are set out when 45-60 cm tall about 2 years after seeding. Seedlings should be moved with a ball of soil and set about 2 m apart, slightly deeper than in seedbed; water to settle soil, and then as needed. Cover crops such as Crotalaria and Calopogonium spp. may be grown between trees. Noxious weeds and grasses should be removed as they appear. Keep weed-free, particularly in seedling stage. Plantation should be cleared twice a year for first 2-3 years, then hoeing each tree is sufficient. Rogue all diseased and poor seedlings regularly. Usually no fertilizer is needed, although bone meal at rate of 30 g/m2 is helpful. In Guatemala, composted manure added to nursery beds benefits growth, as plants require rather high levels of N for more rapid growth. Watering must be done carefully to avoid washing seed out or encouraging damp-off disease. In the absence of rain, watering in field is necessary, especially when young trees are first set out. Cuttings are too slow and uncertain for commercial use. Graftings are made during the rainy season, but not when rains are particularly heavy. About a year after grafting, trees may be set out in a grove, spaced 1.4 m each way, with the plan to thin them, the ultimate spacing being about 2 m each way. Usually, rootstock of C. pubescens is used for grafting (DAD). Trees begin to flower after 3-4 years, and seed may be taken in 4-5 years onward. The entire plantation should be cut by the time trees are 10-12 years old. For seed production, different species should be isolated from each other in forest clearings or separated by a belt of tall growing trees. Capsules collected by hand from trees, using bamboo ladders. Must be harvested before capsule splits releasing seeds, but seed must be well ripened. Capsules are sorted, put into linen bags, and taken to a darkened room for threshing. Capsules opened by hand or gently cracked with pestle and mortar. In Java, a mechanical winnower with a slow current of air is found satisfactory. Cinchona bark is gathered during the rainy season when it is easy to remove from tree. Sometimes some bark is shaved off, being careful not to girdle the tree. Often the entire tree is uprooted and all the bark used — trunk, branches, and roots. The plantation is thinned this way as the trees grow. In Java, trees are cut into short lengths and bark removed by pounding with wooden mallets. After being dried in the sun or in ovens, bark is crushed in a mill and packed in gunny sacks. Fine quality bark is marketed as quills. It is obtained from trees that acquire a bush-like growth by being coppiced close to the roots. Sprouts are clipped and stripped of bark, which, when dried, assume the form of quills. These are carefully packed and shipped in boxes (DAD). Modern plantations of good trees should yield bark containing 10% of quinine or more. At 8 years, a plantation yields from 500-600 kg/ha of dried bark, capable of yielding ca. 31 kg of quinine sulfate. Higher yields, 9-16 MT dry bark/ha, have been projected. Good trees yield about 1000 capsules containing about 1000 seeds each. In 1976, the major producers of Cinchona were Java and other Indonesian areas, eastern slope of Andes, and Guatemala. India consumes most of what it raises. Around 1974, world consumption of cinchona alkaloids was estimated at 200-500 tons, which at an average alkaloid content of 5% would imply 4000-10,000 tons bark (DAD).

Chemistry (Cinchona) —

The bark contains up to 16% (mostly 6-10%) total quinoline alkaloids (quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine). Other alkaloids include epiquinine, epiquinamine, hydroquinidine, hydroquinine, quinamine, etc. Tannins, quinovin, quinic acid, starch, resin, wax, and other items are also reported. According to Hager’s Handtopic cuscam-ine, cuscanoidine, homocinchonine, javanine, dicinchonine, dicinchoninine, and pericine are dubious names from the old literature (HHB). The Handtopic devotes more than 20 fine-print pages to just the alkaloids of Cinchona. Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in cinchona. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.

Cinchonidine —

Antiflu; Antiherpetic; Antimalarial 150-500 mg/man/4 x day; Antipyretic; Antiviral; LD50 = 206 (ipr rat).

Cinchonine —

Antiaggregant IC50 = 125-180 |jM; Antimalarial; LD50 = 152 ipr rat; Antipyretic; MDR-Inhibitor 250 mg/kg igs rat.

Quinidine —

Amebicide IC50 = 16.6 ng/ml; Antiarrhythmnic 72 mg/kg ipr mus; Anticholinergic; Antihiccups; Antimalarial 10 mg/kg/orl/man/8 hr; Antipyretic; Antitachycardic; Antitumor; Car-diodepressant; Dermatitigenic; Emetic; Hypotensive; Immunosuppressive; Laxative; MDR-Inhibi-tor 100 |M; Oxytocic; LD50 = 190 ipr mus; LD50 = 594 orl mus; LD50 = 1000 orl rat.

Quinine —

Abortifacient; Amebicide IC50 = 14.8 ng/ml; Analgesic; Anesthetic; Antibacterial; Antidysenteric; Antifeedant; Antifibrillatory; Antihemorrhoidal; Antilumbagic; Antimalarial IC50 = 0.18 ng/ml; Antineuralgic; Antineuritic; Antipyretic; Antisciatic; Aperitif; Astringent; Candidi-cide; Cardiodepressant; Cytotoxic IC50 = 183 | g/ml; Dermatitigenic; Oxytocic; Phototoxic; Pro-tisticide; Spermicide; Stomachic; Trypanosomicide; LDlo = 8000 mg/man; LDlo = 300 orl gpg.

Cinnamomum aromaticum Nees (Lauraceae) Cassia, Cassia Bark, Cassia Lignea, China Junk Cassia, Chinese Cassia, Chinese Cinnamon, Saigon Cinnamon

Cinnamomum aromaticum Nees (Lauraceae) Cassia, Cassia Bark, Cassia Lignea, China Junk Cassia, Chinese Cassia, Chinese Cinnamon, Saigon Cinnamon

Synonym —

Cinnamomum cassia auct.
Cinnamon and cassia are often combined in the spice trade, so who knows which has been studied when it is reduced to powdered bark.

Medicinal Uses (Cassia) —

Regarded as alexeteric, aperient, balsamic, lactafuge, stimulant, tonic, and vermicidal, cassia is a folk remedy for arthritis, chills, dizziness, dysmenorrhea, goiter, headache, jaundice, lumbago, menorrhagia, nausea, phymata, postpartum, rheumatism, and snakebite. Prolonged use of Cassia is thought to improve the complexion, giving one a more youthful aspect. Constant use is said (I’m not convinced) to prevent gray hair. The bark is prepared as a tea for excessive salivation. The leaves are taken internally for rheumatism. Unani consider the bark carminative, emmenagogue, and tonic, using it for headache, inflammation, piles, and pregnancy. The bark is antiseptic, astringent, and carminative, and the EO has demonstrated cardiovascular, hypotensive, and antiviral activities. Extracts are antibacterial and fungicidal. The bark extracts have shown anesthetic (2% bark solution anesthetizing nerve fiber) and antiallergic activity. Bark is a component of a Chinese proprietary drug used in epilepsy and where sedative or tranquilizing activities are needed in neurological disorders (WO2).
The aqueous extracts prevent increases in urinary protein levels when given orally to nephritic rats (WO2). Its antiulcer activity has been compared to Cimetidine. Sharma et al. (2001) proved that cassia has antimutagenic activity against two mutagens, viz. benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) and cyclophosphamide (CP). The antimutagenic potential was probably due to its effects on xenobiotic bioactivation and detoxification processes (X11506812). Trans-cinnamaldehyde is antimutagenic in Escherichia coli.
Two glucosides, 2 epicatechin derivatives, 2 cinnamic aldehyde, 1,3-acerals, and (dl)-syrigares-inol in the bark extract exhibited antiallergic activity. Cinncassiol D4 and cinncassiol D4 glucoside from a bark fraction also exhibited antiallergic activity. The aqueous extract slightly inhibits the production of hemolytic plaque-forming cells, evidently with an anticomplement action, inhibiting
complement-dependent allergic reactions. The major component, cinnamaldehyde, is sedative and antipyretic. The eugenol found in the oil from the bark (12.5%) has an antiseptic, irritant, and local anesthetic properties, as well as weak tumor-promoting activity on mouse skin. It enhances trypsin activity in vitro. Cassia contains the antitumor (and probably oncogenic) agents benzaldehyde, coumarins, and tannins. The bark EO contained 70.5% cinnamaldehyde and 12.5% eugenol but the leaf EO contained 92.2% benzyl benzoate and only 4.2% cinnamaldehyde.
Indications (Cassia) — Allergy (1; FNF; WO2); Amenorrhea (1; PH2; WO2); Anesthetic (1; WO2);
Anorexia (2; BGB; KOM; PH2); Ascites (f; WO2); Asthenia (f; BGB); Asthma (1; BGB; WO2);
Bacteria (1; BGB; FNF; LAF; PH2); Bloating (2; BGB; KOM); Bronchosis (1; BGB); Cancer (1;
CAN; FNF; JLH); Cancer, bladder (f; JLH); Cancer, diaphragm (f; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f; JLH);
Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, rectum (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Cancer, vagina (f; JLH); Cold (1; BGB; CAN; FNF); Colic (1; BGB; CAN;
PH2); Condyloma (f; JLH); Constipation (f; WO2); Cough (f; BGB); Cramp (1; BGB; CAN; FNF);
Cystosis (f; JLH); Diaphragmosis (f; JLH); Diarrhea (1; BGB; CAN; FNF; PH2); Dyspepsia (2; BGB;
CAN; FNF; KOM; PH2); Dysuria (f; WO2); Edema (f; WO2); Enterosis (f; BGB; PH2; WO2); Enuresis (f; PH2); Epilepsy (f; WO2); Fatigue (f; PH2); Fever (1; AHP; BGB; FNF; WO2); Flu (1;
FNF); Fungus (1; BGB; LAF; PH2); Gas (1; BGB; CAN; PH2; WO2); Gastrosis (f; BGB; PH2; WO2); Gray Hair (f; WO2); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Hernia (f; PH2); High Blood Pressure (1; WO2); HIV (1; FNF); Immunodepression (1; PH2); Impotence (f; PH2); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; BGB; FNF; LAF; PH2); Inflammation (1; FNF); Insomnia (f; WO2); Menopause (f; PH2); Mycosis (1; BGB; LAF; PH2); Nephrosis (1; BGB; WO2); Nervousness (1; FNF; WO2); Neuralgia (1; WO2); Neurasthenia (f; PH2); Ophthalmia (1; WO2); Orchosis (f; PH2); Pain (1; FNF; WO2); Pharyngosis (f; WO2); Sore (f; JLH); Splenosis (f; JLH); Tracheosis (1; WO2); Tumor (1; CAN); Ulcer (1; BGB;
CAN; FNF; PH2; WO2); Urethrosis (f; WO2); Uterosis (f; WO2); Vaginosis (f; JLH); Virus (1; BGB;
FNF; LAF); Vomiting (1; CAN; PH2); Wart (f; JLH); Water Retention (f; WO2). Cassia for cancer:
• AntiEBV: (-)-epicatechin; geranial
• AntiHIV: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; opc; procyanidins
• Antiadenomic: farnesol
• Antiaggregant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; cinnamaldehyde; coumarin; eugenol; isoeu-genol; safrole
• Antiandrogenic: coumarin
• Antiarachidonate: eugenol
• Anticancer: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; benzalde-hyde; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid; coumarin; eugenol; isoeugenol; limonene; linalool; methyl-eugenol; methyl-salicylate; mucilage; opc; safrole; salicylic-acid; trans-cinnamaldehyde
• Antihyaluronidase: opc; procyanidins
• Antiinflammatory: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; cinnamalde-hyde; cinnamic-acid; coumarin; eugenol; methyl-salicylate; opc; salicylic-acid
• Antileukemic: (-)-epicatechin; cinnamaldehyde; farnesol
• Antilipoperoxidant: (-)-epicatechin
• Antimelanomic: coumarin; farnesol
• Antimetastatic: coumarin
• Antimutagenic: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid; cin-namyl-alcohol; coumarin; eugenol; limonene; trans-cinnamaldehyde
• Antioxidant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; camphene; eugenol; gamma-terpinene; isoeu-genol; methyl-eugenol; opc; procyanidins; salicylic-acid
• Antiperoxidant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin
• Antiprostaglandin: (+)-catechin; eugenol
• Antithromboxane: eugenol
• Antitumor: benzaldehyde; benzyl-benzoate; coumarin; eugenol; limonene; salicylic-acid
• Antiviral: (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; cinnamaldehyde; geranial; limonene; linalool; opc; p-cymene; procyanidins
• Apoptotic: farnesol
• Beta-Glucuronidase-Inhibitor: procyanidins
• COX-2-Inhibitor: (+)-catechin; eugenol; salicylic-acid
• Chemopreventive: coumarin; limonene
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: (+)-catechin; cinnamaldehyde; salicylic-acid
• Cytochrome-p450-Inducer: 1,8-cineole; safrole
• Cytotoxic: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; cinnamaldehyde; eugenol; isoeugenol
• DNA-Binder: methyl-chavicol; safrole
• Hepatoprotective: (+)-catechin; eugenol
• Hepatotonic: 1,8-cineole
• Immunostimulant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; benzaldehyde; coumarin
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: (-)-epicatechin; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid
• Lymphocytogenic: coumarin
• Lymphokinetic: coumarin
• Ornithine-Decarboxylase-Inhibitor: limonene
• p450-Inducer: 1,8-cineole
• Reverse-Transcriptase-Inhibitor: (-)-epicatechin
• Sunscreen: opc; procyanidins
Cassia for cold/flu:
• Analgesic: coumarin; eugenol; methyl-salicylate; p-cymene; salicylic-acid
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; benzaldehyde; benzoic-acid; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid; eugenol; guaiacol; linalool; methyl-eugenol; safrole
• Antiallergic: 1,8-cineole; linalool; opc; procyanidins; terpinen-4-ol
• Antibacterial: (-)-epicatechin; 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; benzoic-acid; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid; cuminaldehyde; eugenol; geranial; guai-acol; limonene; linalool; methyl-eugenol; opc; p-cymene; procyanidins; safrole; salicylic-acid; terpinen-4-ol
• Antibronchitic: 1,8-cineole
• Antiflu: alpha-pinene; limonene; p-cymene
• Antihistaminic: linalool; opc; procyanidins
• Antiinflammatory: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; cinnamalde-hyde; cinnamic-acid; coumarin; eugenol; methyl-salicylate; opc; salicylic-acid
• Antioxidant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; camphene; eugenol; gamma-terpinene; isoeu-genol; methyl-eugenol; opc; procyanidins; salicylic-acid
• Antipharyngitic: 1,8-cineole
• Antipyretic: benzoic-acid; cinnamaldehyde; eugenol; methyl-salicylate; salicylic-acid
• Antiseptic: 1,8-cineole; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; benzoic-acid; beta-pinene; cresol; eugenol; furfural; guaiacol; hexanol; limonene; linalool; methyl-benzoate; methyl-eugenol; methyl-salicylate; o-methoxycinnamaldehyde; opc; procyanidins; safrole; salicylic-acid; terpinen-4-ol
• Antitussive: 1,8-cineole; terpinen-4-ol
• Antiviral: (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; cinnamaldehyde; geranial; limonene; linalool; opc; p-cymene; procyanidins
• Bronchorelaxant: linalool
• COX-2-Inhibitor: (+)-catechin; eugenol; salicylic-acid
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: (+)-catechin; cinnamaldehyde; salicylic-acid
• Expectorant: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; benzoic-acid; camphene; guaiacol; limonene; linalool
• Immunostimulant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; benzaldehyde; coumarin
• Phagocytotic: (+)-catechin; coumarin

Cassia for dyspepsia:

• Analgesic: coumarin; eugenol; methyl-salicylate; p-cymene; salicylic-acid
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; benzaldehyde; benzoic-acid; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid; eugenol; guaiacol; linalool; methyl-eugenol; safrole
• Antigastritic: opc; procyanidins
• Antiinflammatory: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; cinnamalde-hyde; cinnamic-acid; coumarin; eugenol; methyl-salicylate; opc; salicylic-acid
• Antioxidant: (+)-catechin; (-)-epicatechin; camphene; eugenol; gamma-terpinene; isoeu-genol; methyl-eugenol; opc; procyanidins; salicylic-acid
• Antipeptic: benzaldehyde
• Antiulcer: (+)-catechin; cinnamaldehyde; eugenol
• Antiulcerogenic: melilotic-acid
• Carminative: eugenol; methyl-salicylate; safrole
• Circulostimulant: cinnamaldehyde
• Demulcent: mucilage
• Secretagogue: 1,8-cineole
• Sedative: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; cinnamaldehyde; coumarin; eugenol; farnesol; isoeugenol; limonene; linalool; methyl-eugenol; p-cymene
• Tranquilizer: alpha-pinene; cinnamaldehyde

Other Uses (Cassia) —

Other than medicines, three products are obtained from Cassia: (1) the bark, equivalent and interchangeable with cinnamon, (2) oil from bark, leaves, or twigs, and (3) cassia “buds,” which are in fact dried unripe fruits. These dried green fruits are the Cassia “buds” of commerce, which rather resemble cloves. True cloves are in fact also flower buds, unopened buds in the tightly fitted calyx. Cassia bark is an important spice. Exodus suggests that cassia and cinnamon, as distinct spices, were both incorporated in Biblical holy oil (Exodus 30:23-25). Cassia is essentially equivalent to cinnamon as medicine and spice, and the two are aggregated in the spice trade. Arndt (1999) laments that aggregating the two in the U.S. spice trade (and many other places) denies us a useful refinement in flavoring our foods; some dishes are better with cassia, others with cinnamon. Arndt (1999) says cassia, not cinnamon, is the authentic flavor for dishes in Burma, China, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, and Vietnam. She speculates that this is why it is called “Chinese cinnamon,” and why it is one of the ingredients in Chinese five-spice. Arndt (1999) tells us how to distinguish cassia and cinnamon. Ground cassia bark is darker and redder brown than the medium tan ground cinnamon. The bark in cassia sticks is thicker than that in cinnamon sticks. Cassia sticks usually consist of a single piece rolled inward from both ends; cinnamon sticks may be multiple layers rolled around each other in “quills.” If your sample is not too old, chewed cassia does not give you a gelatinous or slippery feel in the mouth; cinnamon does (AAR). Sticks (cassia or cinnamon) are preferable to ground spice in any simmerings, in chocolate, cocoa, or coffee, mulled ciders and wines, fruit syrups, and custard creams (AAR). Cassia is used in spice blends and pickling spices (where cracked cinnamon is used) and to flavor baked goods, candy (even chocolates), curry powders, fruit dishes, pickles, sauces. The bark, and an EO derived therefrom, are used to flavor baked goods, beverages, chewing gum, condiments, confectionaries, and curries. The cassia “buds” are used in flavoring breads, cakes,
chocolate, and pickles (FAC). In Chinese cooking, cassia is often used with meats, especially pork, even marbled Chinese tea eggs. The bark, and probably all plant parts, contains cinnamaldehyde, a biologically active compound, which is distilled for export. Oil of Cassia can be distilled from the leaves, chips of wood, and bark. The oil is also used as a natural disinfectant. Though the main use of cassia bark is culinary in the West, especially in flavoring processed foods, the oil also finds its way into China’s “Tiger Balm” and into soaps, perfumes, spice essences, and beverages. Quills of cassia and/or cinnamon can perfume your drawers; or boil 1/2 tsp cassia in 2 cups of water in the kitchen to freshen aromas there. (AFL, DAD, RIN, WO2).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Cassia) —

In South China, it is grown in a moderately cool climate, annual rainfall ca. 1200-1300 mm, elevation mostly 90-300 m, usually propagated by cutting but sometimes grown from seed. Young plants may be grown from seed in nurseries 20-25 cm apart; when a few centimeters tall, are transplanted to the field, spaced at intervals of ca. 3 m apart each way. More frequently, cassia is propagated from cuttings. Plant produces flushes of growth, with 2-10 leaves on a branch, leaves standing 1-2 cm apart at maturity. Propagation should be delayed until leaves of a flush are horizontal and of firm texture. Entire flush may be used or two-node cuttings with both leaves attached are also very satisfactory. Rooting chemicals induce more and larger roots per cutting; rooting takes place within 2-4 months; usually 2-4 months with mist propagation and about 27°C bottom heat. Some cuttings take longer but eventually root. Rooted cuttings should be potted in a clean medium such as peat or sphagnum. Sterilized soil may be used if care is taken to avoid puddling. Only the uppermost axillary bud should be planted so that it is exposed to full light. Cuttings rooted by mist propagation should be conditioned to drier conditions after potting. Reduced misting over a 2 week period is usually sufficient. Keep free of weeds. Care must be given to young, tender growth to avoid leaf damage, drying winds, chemical sprays, dry soil, wilting, and rough handing. Callus formation occurs readily on most cuttings and usually precedes rooting. If, after l year, no roots have appeared, part of the callus should be removed and the area examined for signs of roots; one root is sufficient to start the cutting for normal plant development. In harvesting, the fragrant inner bark is peeled from slender canes and rolled like a scroll, with both edges towards the middle. Bits of outer bark may adhere. These scrolls of cassia are sold as “cinnamon sticks” in the U.S. (AAR, DAD, WO2).
Once, older trees were destructively harvested to produce cassia or camphor. Then time of planting to harvest was cut to 10-15 years. Lately, trees have been grown as a coppiced bush. At 5-9 years of age, bushes are cut off close to the ground, and new shoots spring up from the roots, so plantations may last indefinitely. From March to May, cuts are made in the bark of trees at least six years old. Branches about 3 cm thick are cleared of twigs and leaves; two longitudinal slits are then made and circumferential slits are made through the bark at about 40 cm apart to yield semicylindric quills about 40 cm long. The bitter-tasting epidermis is exfoliated, by planing or scraping, and the quills are dried in the sun. The bark is then distilled to extract cassia oil. Cassia buds are gathered when fruits are ripe on trees 10 years or older. Average trees in Sumatra yield 8 kg of best quality bark and 3 kg each of second- and third-grade bark. Cinnamaldehyde may be distilled from the bark, which yields 0.3-0.8% EO, dominated by cinnamaldehyde. Cinnamaldehyde is now also produced synthetically on a large scale from coal tar bases, particularly toluol. Cassia buds, which contain the fleshy ovaries, especially those that are plump and fresh with a fine cinnamon flavor and free from stalks and dirt, are the best. If the buds are packed with the bark, the flavor of both is improved.

Chemistry (Cassia) —

See also Cinnamomum verum, with many of the same chemicals. Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in cassia. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database .
Cincassiol-D4 — Antiallergic. Cinnamaldehyde — See also Cinnamomum verum. Cinnamic-ACID — See also Cinnamomum verum. Trans-Cinnamaldehyde — See also Cinnamomum verum.

Cinnamomum verum J. Presl (Lauraceae) Ceylon Cinnamon, Cinnamon

Cinnamomum verum J. Presl (Lauraceae) Ceylon Cinnamon, Cinnamon

Synonyms-

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume, Laurus cinnamomum L.
Cinnamon and cassia are often combined in the spice trade, so who knows which has been studied when it is reduced to powdered bark.

Medicinal Uses (Cinnamon) —

Well known for millennia, and oft mentioned in the Bible, cinnamon was reportedly one of the ingredients in Moses’ holy ointment (Libster, 2002). Libster (2002) suggests that cinnamon tea might be useful for elderly bedridden patients with cold extremities, or in preparing such a patient for a recuperative walk, or cast removal from a fractured extremity. Regarded as antipyretic, antiseptic, astringent, balsamic, carminative, diaphoretic, fungicide, stimulant, and stomachic, it is a fragrant cordial, useful for weakness of stomach and diarrhea, checking nausea and vomiting, and used in other medicinal mixtures. Powdered bark in water (or EO, or tiger balm containing many of the same chemicals) is applied to the temple in headaches and neuralgia. Cinnamon bark prevents platelet agglutination and shows antithrombic and antitumor activity. Lebanese use cinnamon as a stimulant, for colds, rheumatism, halitosis, and to check slobbering in young and elderly people. It is also used to loosen coughs. Ayurvedics consider the bark aphrodisiac and tonic, using it for biliousness, bronchitis, diarrhea, itch, parched mouth, worms, and cardiac, rectal, and urinary diseases. They use the oil for “eructations,” gas, loss of appetite, nausea, and toothache. Unani consider the oil carminative, emmenagogue, and tonic to the liver, using it for abdominal pains, bronchitis, head colds, and inflammation. They consider the bark alexeteric, aphrodisiac, carminative, expectorant, sialagogue, and tonic, using it for gas, headache, hiccup, hydrocele, liver ailments, piles, and scorpion stings. One of our Belizean ecotourists was complaining about a snoring roommate. Famed Belizean herbalist Rosita Aruigo suggests 1 cup of cinnamon tea with 2 tsp grated ginger, adding honey and milk to taste. Drink at bedtime each night until cured. Since I have mentioned one spicy Ayurvedic triad, trikatu (ginger, long pepper, and pepper), I may as well mention another spicy triad, trijataka [cardamom, cinnamon, and "tejapatra," which I am told is cassia (unidentified in DEP and WOI)], three more aromatics often used together for lengual paralysis, stomach cramps, and toothache (BIB, DAD, DEP, JLH, WOI, WO2).
In massive doses, it aided in the treatment of cancer. It has been regarded as a folk remedy for indurations (of spleen, breast, uterus, liver, and stomach) and tumors (especially of the abdomen, liver, and sinews). Cinnamon contains the antitumor agent benzaldehyde.
Cinnamon invigorates the blood, helps regulate the menstrual cycle, and checks flooding (Weed, 2002). The usual dose is a cup of cinnamon tea, 5-10 drops of tincture once or twice a day. Cautioning her readers not to use straight cinnamon oil internally, she suggests a strong cinnamon tea or using 5-10 drops of tincture every 15 min or so to slow flooding and relieve uterine cramping. But you can chew on a cinnamon stick or sprinkle powdered cinnamon on toast or tea or what-have-you. Mothers are given hot cinnamon tea, with ginger and caraway, to prevent blood clotting. Cinnamon is used as a stimulant of the uterine muscular fiber in menorrhagia and in tedious labor due to defective uterine contractions. It is also used for chills and menstrual cramps. Ayurvedics consider the bark aphrodisiac.
Cinnamon oil is antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial, and larvicidal. The cinnamon leaf oil, distilled from dried green leaves, is a powerful antiseptic and is also used in perfumes, spices, and in the synthesis of vanillin. The EOs are antiseptic, the ether-soluble fraction antioxidant. Libster (2002) also suggests experimentation with topical and internal cinnamon tea for patients with candida. Cinnamon killed Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, confirming traditional uses of spices as food preservatives, disinfectants, and antiseptics (De et al., 1999). Vapors of several EOs are active against dermatophytes, like Tinea and Trichophyton. Of those seven studied by Inouye et al. (2001), cinnamon was most potent, followed by lemongrass, thyme, and perilla (chiso) oils, which killed the conidia and inhibited germination and hyphal elongation at 1-4 |Jg/ml air. Eugenol is antiseptic. At a 0.1% concentration, a liquid CO2 extraction of cinnamon bark completely suppressed growth of candida, escherichia, and staphylococcus. Libster (2002) reviews Chinese studies in the last decade where three of five patients with oral HIV and candida significantly improved with commercial cinnamon lozenges. The scientists speculated that it is improbable that systemic candida can be challenged, but therapeutic levels can be obtained in oropharynx (Libster, 2002).
USDA studies show that cinnamon (ca. 1/8 tsp) can treble insulin efficiency and may be useful in adult onset diabetes (Khan et al., 1990). But recall that Hikino (1985) ascribes hyperglycemic activity to the labile and volatile cinnamaldehyde, main ingredient of the cinnamon.

Indications (Cinnamon) —

Amenorrhea (1; CRC; WHO; WO2); Amnesia (f; ZUL); Anorexia (2; CAN; KOM; PH2; WHO); Arthrosis (f; CRC); Asthenia (1; BGB); Asthma (f; CRC; LIB); Bacillus (1; X10548758); Bacteria (1; FNF; WO2); Bleeding (1; APA); Bloating (1; BGB); Bronchosis (2;
CRC; PHR); Cancer (f; CRC); Cancer, abdomen (f; JLH); Cancer, bladder (f; JLH); Cancer, breast
(f; JLH); Cancer, colon (f; JLH); Cancer, diaphragm (f; JLH); Cancer, ear (f; JLH); Cancer, gum (f; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f; JLH); Cancer, neck (f; JLH); Cancer, rectum (f; JLH; WO2); Cancer, sinus (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Cancer, vagina (f; JLH); Candida (1; CRC; LIB); Cardiopathy (f; LIB); Childbirth (f; LIB); Chill (f; PHR; PH2); Cholera (1; CRC; WO2); Cold (2; CAN; FNF; PHR; ZUL); Colic (1; APA; CAN; TRA); Condylomata (f; JLH); Congestion (1; FNF); Conjunctivosis (f; WHO); Convulsion (f; LIB); Cough (2; CRC; FNF; PHR); Cramp (1; APA; DEP; ZUL); Debility (f; LIB); Depression (f; LIB); Diarrhea (1; DEP; PHR; TRA; WHO); Dysentery (f; CRC; DEP; WO2); Dysmenorrhea (1; APA; WHO); Dyspepsia (2; CAN; FNF; IED; KOM; PH2; WHO); Dyspnea (f; WHO); Earache (f; LIB); Enterosis (1; JLH; WHO); Enterospasm (2; KOM; WHO); Escherichia (1;
CRC; X10548758); Exhaustion (f; LIB); Fever (2; AHP; FNF; PHR; TRA); Fistula (f; CRC); Flu (1; FNF; PHR; PH2); Frigidity (f; LIB; WHO); Fungus (1; FNF; LIB; X10548758); Gas (2; APA; DEP; KOM; TRA; WHO); Gastrosis (f; DEP; WO2); Gastrospasm (2; KOM); Gingivosis (f; JLH); Glossosis (f; DEP; WO2); Gonorrhea (f; LIB); Halitosis (f; PH2); Headache (1; DEP; WO2; ZUL); Heart (f; CRC); Hepatosis (f; JLH); High Blood Pressure (f; LIB; ZUL); Immunodepression (1; FNF); Impotence (f; LIB; WHO); Infection (2; FNF; PHR; WO2); Inflammation (1; FNF; LIB); Leukemia (1; TRA; WO2); Leukorrhea (f; WHO); Lumbago (f; CRC); Lungs (f; CRC); Lupus (f; LIB); Lymphoma (1; WO2); Mastosis (f; JLH); Menorrhagia (f; CRC; LIB); Mycosis (1; FNF; ZUL); Nausea (1; CRC; FNF; TRA; ZUL); Nephrosis (f; CRC; LIB); Nervousness (1; FNF); Neuralgia (f; DEP; WHO; WO2); Oketsu Syndrome (f; LIB); Otosis (f; LIB); Pain (1; FNF; WHO; WO2); Paralysis (f; DEP; WO2);
Pharyngosis (2; PHR); Phthisis (f; CRC); Phymata (f; JLH); Proctosis (f; CRC; JLH); Prolapse (f;
CRC); Psoriasis (f; CRC); Rheumatism (f; APA; WHO; WO2; ZUL); Salmonella (1; WO2); Sinusosis (f; JLH); Sore (f; JLH); Spasm (f; CRC); Splenosis (f; JLH); Staphylococcus (1; CRC); Stomatosis (2; CRC; JLH; PHR); Stress (f; LIB); Syncope (f; WO2); Tension (f; LIB); Toothache (f; DEP; PH2; WHO); Tuberculosis (f; LIB); Tumor (f; CRC; JLH); Typhoid (f; LIB); Ulcer (1; WHO); Vaginosis
(f; CRC; JLH; WHO); VD (f; LIB); Virus (f; LIB); Vomiting (f; CRC; PH2); Wart (f; CRC; JLH);
Wen (f; JLH); Worm (f; PHR; PH2); Wound (f; PHR; PH2; WHO); Yeast (1; APA; WO2; X10548758). Cinnamon for dyspepsia:
• Analgesic: borneol; caffeic-acid; camphor; coumarin; eugenol; myrcene; p-cymene; phenol
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; benzaldehyde; benzyl-alcohol; camphor; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid; eugenol; linalool; linalyl-acetate; methyl-eugenol; myrcene; phenol; safrole
• Antiemetic: camphor
• Antiinflammatory: (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; borneol; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; caryophyllene-oxide; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid; coumarin; delta-3-carene; eugenol; eugenyl-acetate; mannitol; salicylates
• Antioxidant: (-)-epicatechin; caffeic-acid; camphene; eugenol; gamma-terpinene; isoeu-genol; linalyl-acetate; mannitol; methyl-eugenol; myrcene; p-coumaric-acid; phenol; proanthocyanidins; vanillin
• Antipeptic: benzaldehyde
• Antiulcer: cinnamaldehyde; eugenol
• Antiulcerogenic: caffeic-acid
• Carminative: camphor; eugenol; safrole
• Circulostimulant: cinnamaldehyde
• Demulcent: mucilage
• Secretagogue: 1,8-cineole
• Sedative: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; benzyl-alcohol; borneol; bornyl-acetate; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; cinnamaldehyde; citronellal; cou-marin; eugenol; farnesol; geraniol; geranyl-acetate; isoeugenol; limonene; linalool; lina-lyl-acetate; methyl-eugenol; nerol; p-cymene
• Tranquilizer: alpha-pinene; cinnamaldehyde

Cinnamon for infection:

• Analgesic: borneol; caffeic-acid; camphor; coumarin; eugenol; myrcene; p-cymene; phenol
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; benzaldehyde; benzyl-alcohol; camphor; cinnamaldehyde; cin-namic-acid; eugenol; linalool; linalyl-acetate; methyl-eugenol; myrcene; phenol; safrole
• Antibacterial: (-)-epicatechin; 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; bornyl-acetate; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid; citronellal;
cuminaldehyde; delta-3-carene; eugenol; geranial; geraniol; limonene; linalool; methyl-eugenol; myrcene; nerol; p-coumaric-acid; p-cymene; phenol; safrole; terpinen-4-ol
• Antiedemic: caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; caryophyllene-oxide; coumarin; eugenol; proanthocyanidins
• Antiinflammatory: (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; borneol; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; caryophyllene-oxide; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid; coumarin; delta-3-carene; eugenol; eugenyl-acetate; mannitol; salicylates
• Antilymphedemic: coumarin
• Antiseptic: 1,8-cineole; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; benzyl-alcohol; beta-pinene; caf-feic-acid; camphor; citronellal; eugenol; furfural; geraniol; hexanol; limonene; linalool; methyl-eugenol; nerol; o-methoxycinnamaldehyde; oxalic-acid; phenol; proanthocyani-dins; safrole; terpinen-4-ol
• Antiviral: (-)-epicatechin; alpha-pinene; bornyl-acetate; caffeic-acid; cinnamaldehyde; geranial; limonene; linalool; p-cymene; phenol; proanthocyanidins; vanillin
• Bacteristat: coumarin; isoeugenol
• COX-2-Inhibitor: eugenol
• Circulostimulant: cinnamaldehyde
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: cinnamaldehyde
• Fungicide: 1,8-cineole; alpha-phellandrene; beta-phellandrene; caffeic-acid; camphor; caryophyllene; caryophyllene-oxide; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid; coumarin; cumi-naldehyde; eugenol; furfural; geraniol; linalool; methyl-eugenol; myrcene; o-methoxy-cinnamaldehyde; p-coumaric-acid; p-cymene; phenol; terpinen-4-ol; terpinolene; vanillin
• Fungistat: isoeugenol; limonene; methyl-eugenol
• Immunostimulant: (-)-epicatechin; benzaldehyde; caffeic-acid; coumarin
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: (-)-epicatechin; caffeic-acid; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic-acid; p-coumaric-acid

Other Uses (Cinnamon) —

In Biblical times, spices like cinnamon were used to prepare incense and holy oils used in religious rites, medicines, and perfumes. Exodus suggests that cassia and cinnamon, as distinct spices, were both incorporated in Biblical holy oil (Exodus 30:23-25). Arndt (1999) laments that aggregating the two in the U.S. spice trade (and many other places) denies us a useful refinement in flavoring our foods; some dishes are better with cassia, others with cinnamon. Arndt tells us how to distinguish cassia and cinnamon. Ground cassia bark is darker and redder brown than the medium tan ground cinnamon. The bark in cassia sticks is thicker than that in cinnamon sticks. Cassia sticks usually consist of a single piece rolled inward from both ends; cinnamon sticks may be multiple layers rolled around each other in “quills.” If your sample is not too old, chewed cassia does not give you a gelatinous or slippery feel in the mouth; cinnamon does (AAR). The bark, as the condiment cinnamon, is used in food, dentifrices, incenses, and perfumes. The bark is commonly used to flavor curries, buns, rolls, apple butter, puddings, beverages, etc. (FAC). EOs from the bark and leaves are similarly used. Cinnamon leaves are one of the ingredients used for flavoring jerked pork in Jamaica, where they are also used in place of cinnamon bark in puddings and hominy dishes. Cinnamon sugar, a fragrant mixture of cinnamon and white sugar, is a popular topping for French toast and cappuccino (FAC). Cinnamon bark oil, distilled from chips and bark of inferior quality, is used in foods, perfumes, soaps, cordials, and in drug and dental preparations. Early Egyptians apparently used cinnamon in embalming. Fat from the fruits has been used in candle making. Cinnamon sticks were once used to stake vanilla vines and some of the stakes took root.
Recently, it has been shown that compounds from cinnamon prevent stored potatoes from sprouting, probably due to aromatic aldehydes, like cinnamaldehyde, destroying the potato eye. “These natural sprouting inhibitors also kill a fungus that causes dry rot in potatoes…including a strain that has become resistant to fungicides” (BIB, DAD). Nakatani (1994) notes that EOs of
celery, cinnamon, coriander, and cumin are comparable to sorbic acid at preventing the slimy spoilage of Vienna sausage (Nakatani, 1994, SPI).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of
Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Cinnamon) —

Cinnamon is propagated by seed, three-leaved cuttings, layering, and division of old rootstocks, the latter resulting in earlier harvests. The short-lived seed germinate in 2-3 weeks. Pulp should be removed from seed before planting. Seed may be planted, four or five to in situ spots. They are probably better planted in a nursery. Shade, furnished to the young seedlings, is removed when they are about 15 cm high. After about 4 months, seedlings transplanted to containers. Four months later, they are outplanted, spaced ca. 2-3 m apart. Weeds should be removed, perhaps used as green manure or mulch. After about 2 years, stems are cut back close to ground to encourage coppice. Four to six of the coppice shoots are allowed to grow about 2 more years, pruning them to maintain straight canes. When 2-3 m high and 2-5 cm in diameter, these canes are harvested. Only a few canes are taken, a full crop being made when tree is 10 years old, after which the yield diminishes (DAD, WOI). Two crops are taken annually, usually in May and November, depending upon rains. Bark is more easily separated from the wood following the first rain. Semi-cylindrical quills of bark are manually cut. Quillings are pieces broken off quills in handling and shipping; featherings are bark from twigs; chips are shavings of outer bark sometimes with attached bits of inner bark, as happens when peeling crooked canes. Quills, quillings, and featherings, all true good cinnamon, are exported in cylindrical bales of 100 lb net, while chips are exported in pressed cakes of 2-3 cwt. net. Quills are fermented for 24 hr or so, and the epidermis and green cortical tissues and cork scraped off. After drying, quills contract. These are rolled up within each other, further dried in shade and compacted by rolling by hand daily. After 4 or 5 years, first cuttings yield about 65 kg quills/ha/year, increasing to 200 kg/ha and starting to decline after about 10 years. Large trees, ca. 60 cm in diameter, may yield 45 kg bark. But one should not expect yields of higher than 600 kg every five years. Leaf harvest has been estimated at 1.9-2.5 MT/ha. Leaves contain 0.6-0.8% EO.

Chemistry (Cinnamon) —

Orally, cinnamaldehyde stimulates the CNS at low doses and inhibits it at high doses. It accelerates release of catecholamines (mainly adrenaline) from the adrenal glands into the blood. According to Sambaiah and Srinivasan (1989), cinnamon stimulated liver microsomal cytochrome p450 dependent aryl hydroxylase. Of the various types of cinnamon bark oils, that of C. verum may have the largest amount of eugenol. Eugenol is reportedly absent in cassia bark oil. Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in cinnamon. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.

Cinnamaldehyde —

ADI = 700 |Jg/kg; Adrenergic; Allelochemic IC100 = 2.5 mM; Anesthetic; Antiaggregant 200 \xM; Antibacterial; Anticancer; Antiherpetic; Antiinflammatory; Antileukemic; Antimutagenic; Antipyretic; Antisalmonellic; Antispasmodic; Antiulcer 500 mg/kg/orl; Antiurease; Antiviral; Candidicide MIC = 16-40 ppm; Choleretic 500 mg/kg/orl; Chronotropic; Circulostim-ulant; CNS-Depressant; CNS-Stimulant; Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor; Cytotoxic ED50 5-60 | g/ml; Fungicide 1.7-250 ppm; MIC = 16-40 ppm; Herbicide; Histaminic; Hypoglycemic; Hypotensive; Inotropic; Insecticide; Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor; Monoaminergic; Mutagenic; Nematicide 100 ng/ml; Sedative; Sprout-Inhibitor; Teratogenic; Tranquilizer; Tyrosinase-Inhibitor ID50 = 129 ng/ml; Vasodilator; LD50 = 2225 orl mus; LD50 = 610 ipr mus; LD50 = 132 ivn mus.

Cinnamic-Acid —

Anesthetic; Antibacterial; Anticancer; Antiinflammatory; Antimutagenic; Antispas-modic; Choleretic; Dermatitigenic; Fungicide; Herbicide; Laxative; Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor; Vermifuge.
Eugenol — See also Pimenta.
Trans-Cinnamaldehyde — Allelochemic (IC50 = 0.38 mM); Anticancer; Antifeedant; Antimutagenic; Sweetner (50 x sucrose).

Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae) Coconut, Coconut Palm, Copra, Nariyal

Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae) Coconut, Coconut Palm, Copra, Nariyal

Medicinal Uses (Coconut) —

Most of us think of coconut as food; fewer think of medicine or spice. Yet coconut water is diuretic, at least in dogs (MPI), and the water is also regarded
as aperient, cooling, and demulcent. Coconuts are used in folk remedies for tumors (JLH). Reported to be antibacterial, antidotal, antipyretic, antiseptic, aperient, aphrodisiac, astringent, depurative, diuretic, hemostat, pediculicide, laxative, stomachic, styptic, suppurative, and vermifuge (NUT).
Soy interests have made saturated tropical fats look bad, but DeRoos et al. (2001) show that ingestion of a solid fat rich in lauric acid gives a more favorable serum lipid profile in healthy men and women than consumption of a solid fat rich in trans-fatty acids (partially hydrogenated soybean oil rich in trans-fatty acids). Solid fats rich in lauric acids appear to trans-fats in food manufacturing, where hard fats are indispensable (X11160540). The hemicelulose fiber (unlike the cellulose) decreased total cholesterol, LDL, VLDL while increasing HDL.
Coconut fiber reduced mutagenic and carcinogenic effects of chile and 1,2-dimethylhydrazine, respectively (Khan and Balick, 2001). And oil from the shell has proven antiseptic against Aspergil-lus niger, Candida albicans, Penicillium chrysogenum, Rhizoctonia bataticola, R. solani and Trichophyton mentagrophytes (MPI).

Indications (Coconut) —

Abscess (f; DAD); Alactea (f; DAV); Alopecia (f; DAD); Amenorrhea (f; DAD); Asthma (f; DAD; DAV); Bacteria (1; FNF); Blennorrhagia (f; DAD); Bronchosis (f; DAD; PH2); Bruise (f; DAD); Burn (f; DAD); Cachexia (f; DAD); Calculus (f; DAD); Cancer (1; FNF; JLH; PH2); Cancer, breast (1; DAV); Cancer, colon (1; JAC7:405); Candida (1; FNF; JFM); Caries
(f; WO2); Childbirth (f; DAV); Cold (f; DAD; PH2); Constipation (f; DAD); Cough (f; DAD; PH2); Debility (f; DAD); Dermatosis (f; DAD; PH2); Diabetes (f; IED); Dropsy (f; DAD); Dysentery (f; DAD; SKJ); Dysmenorrhea (f; DAD); Dysuria (f; SKJ; WO2); Earache (f; DAD); Erysipelas (f;
DAD); Fever (f; DAD; SKJ); Flu (f; DAD); Fungus (1; FNF; MPI); Gingivosis (f; DAD); Gonorrhea
(f; DAD); Gray Hair (f; PH2); Headache (f; IED); Hematemesis (f; DAD); Hemoptysis (f; DAD);
Hepatosis (f; SKJ); High Blood Pressure (f; IED); High Cholesterol (1; JAC7:405); Impotence (f; DAD); Infection (1; FNF; MPI); Inflammation (1; FNF; PH2); Jaundice (f; DAD); Mastosis (f; JFM); Menorrhagia (f; DAD); Miscarriage (f; DAV); Mycosis (1; FNF; MPI); Nausea (f; DAD; IED); Parasite
(f; IED); Pharyngosis (f; PH2); Phthisis (f; DAD); Pregnancy (f; DAD); Rash (f; DAD); Scabies (f; DAD); Scurvy (f; DAD); Sore (f; PH2); Sore Throat (f; DAD; PH2); Swelling (f; DAD); Syphilis (f;
DAD); Toothache (f; DAD; JFM); Tuberculosis (1; DAD; MPI); Tumor (1; DAD; FNF); Typhoid (f;
DAD); Uterosis (f; SKJ); VD (f; DAD; JFM); Virus (1; FNF); Vomiting (f; SKJ); Water Retention (1; FNF); Worm (f; IED); Wound (f; DAD); Yeast (1; JFM; MPI).

Coconut for cancer:

• AntiHIV: lignin
• Antiaggregant: ferulic-acid; ligustrazine; menthol; salicylates
• Anticancer: alpha-terpineol; ferulic-acid; lignin; limonene; p-coumaric-acid; p-hydroxy-benzoic-acid; squalene; syringaldehyde; vanillic-acid; vanillin
• Anticarcinogenic: ferulic-acid
• Antihepatotoxic: ferulic-acid; p-coumaric-acid
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-amyrin; cycloartenol; ferulic-acid; gentisic-acid; menthol; n-hentriacontane; salicylates; syringaldehyde; vanillic-acid
• Antimutagenic: ferulic-acid; limonene; n-nonacosane; p-hydroxy-benzoic-acid; vanillin
• Antineoplastic: ferulic-acid
• Antinitrosaminic: ferulic-acid; lignin; p-coumaric-acid
• Antioxidant: ferulic-acid; gamma-tocopherol; lignin; p-coumaric-acid; p-hydroxy-ben-zoic-acid; squalene; syringaldehyde; vanillic-acid; vanillin
• Antiperoxidant: p-coumaric-acid
• Antistress: gaba
• Antitumor: alpha-amyrin; ferulic-acid; lignin; limonene; p-coumaric-acid; squalene; van-illic-acid; vanillin
• Antiviral: ferulic-acid; gentisic-acid; lignin; limonene; vanillin
• Anxiolytic: gaba
• Chemopreventive: limonene; squalene
• Cytotoxic: alpha-amyrin; p-coumaric-acid
• Hepatoprotective: ferulic-acid
• Immunostimulant: ferulic-acid; squalene
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: p-coumaric-acid; squalene
• Ornithine-Decarboxylase-Inhibitor: ferulic-acid; limonene
• Prostaglandigenic: ferulic-acid; p-coumaric-acid; p-hydroxy-benzoic-acid
• Sunscreen: ferulic-acid; squalene
Coconut for infection:
• Analgesic: ferulic-acid; gentisic-acid; menthol
• Anesthetic: menthol
• Antibacterial: alpha-terpineol; cycloartenol; ferulic-acid; gentisic-acid; lignin; limonene; menthol; p-coumaric-acid; p-hydroxy-benzoic-acid; squalene; vanillic-acid
• Antiedemic: alpha-amyrin; beta-amyrin; syringaldehyde
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-amyrin; cycloartenol; ferulic-acid; gentisic-acid; menthol; n-hentriacontane; salicylates; syringaldehyde; vanillic-acid
• Antiseptic: alpha-terpineol; limonene; menthol
• Antiviral: ferulic-acid; gentisic-acid; lignin; limonene; vanillin
• Bacteristat: malic-acid; n-hexacosane
• Fungicide: capric-acid; caprylic-acid; ferulic-acid; octanoic-acid; p-coumaric-acid; phyl-loquinone; vanillin
• Fungistat: limonene; p-hydroxy-benzoic-acid
• Immunostimulant: ferulic-acid; squalene
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: p-coumaric-acid; squalene

Other Uses (Coconut) —

One of the 10 most useful trees in the world, providing food for millions of people, especially in the tropics. If the tree can be spared, the cabbage-like heart makes a tasty treat, a “millionaire’s salad.” Terminal buds are eaten raw (FAC). Inflorescences (flower clusters) are eaten as a vegetable and are a source of sugar, vinegar, and palm wine (FAC). Flowers provide good honey for bees. A clump of unopened flowers may be bruised and “weep” sweet juice, up to a gallon per day. The brown liquid is boiled down to syrup. Left standing, it ferments quickly into “toddy.” After a few weeks, it becomes a vinegar. “Arrack” is the distilled fermented “toddy.” Pith of stems is made into bread, added to soups, fried or pickled (FAC). Sprouting seeds may be eaten like celery. One cv “Nawasi” is said to have an edible husk. Coconut sport or makapuno is a delicacy that comes from a cv with the coconut water replaced by a thick curd. Coconut apple, a spongy mass that forms inside a germinating seed, is another delicacy. Nutmeat of immature coconuts is like a custard in flavor and consistency (NUT). Arndt (1999) says, “the versatile coconut palm offers its trunk for structures and utensils, its fronds for thatch, its fiber for ropes and mats, and its seed and sap for a variety of nutritious foods. For many people, this is truly the tree of life.” Coconut water is used as a braising liquid to flavor and tenderize meats, and occasionally to enrich the liquid in a stew. To make coconut chips, slice a piece of coconut meat into very thin strips, bake in a single layer on a cookie sheet in a low oven (about 200°F) ca. 1/2 hour or until they are deep golden brown. Sprinkle with salt while still hot. Shredded or grated coconut is used in cakes, pies, candies, and in curries and sweets. Mixed with orange segments, shredded coconut makes ambrosia, a Christmas treat. Try substituting grated coconut for bread crumbs in your meatball recipe. These are even better if you add coriander, toasted and ground; coriander marries most happily with the coconut flavor. Coconut milk is obtained by pouring boiling water over grated flesh and letting it soak until cool. Use equal volumes of grated nut meat and water. Strain, pressing down on the coconut. Caribbean cooks use coconut with bananas, limes, mangoes, papaya, and pineapples. Antiguans mix grated coconut, grated sweet potato, a bit of flour and seasonings (sugar, nutmeg, and vanilla). The mixture is wrapped in a banana leaf or a sea-grape leaf and boiled. This dumpling-like “doucana” is traditionally served with salt fish. “Creme de coco” often indicates a mix of coconut milk, coconut oil, and sugar, for pina coladas and other tropical cocktails (AAR). Cooked with rice to make Panama’s famous “arroz con coco”; also cooked with taro leaves or game and used in coffee as cream. Ontjom, tempeh bongrek, nata de coco, and dageh kelapa are fermented products made from coconut. Nata de coco, or coconut gel, is a common ingredient of halo-halo, a bottled dessert that also contains aduki beans and sugar syrup (FAC). When nuts are open and dried, meat becomes copra, which is processed for oil, used to make soaps, shampoos, shaving creams, toothpaste, lotions, lubricants, hydraulic fluid, paints, synthetic rubber, plastics, margarine, and in ice cream. Leaves are sometimes used to wrap foods for cooking (FAC). Hindus make vegetarian butter, “ghee,” from coconut oil. Coconut roots provide a dye; frayed out, it makes toothbrushes; scorched, it is used as coffee substitute (NUT). The husk has a mass of packed fibers, “coir,” used for mattresses, upholstery, and life preservers. Coconut fiber, resistant to sea water, is used for cables and rigging on ships, for making mats, rugs, bags, brooms, brushes, and olive oil filters, and for fires and mosquito smudges. Charcoal is used for cooking fires.
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Coconut) —

Nuts are planted right away in the nursery or stored in a cool, dry shed. Soil should be sandy or light loamy, free from water logging, close to source of water, devoid of heavy shade. Beds should be dug and loosened to a depth of 30 cm. Nuts spaced in beds ca. 20 x 30 cm; a hectare of nursery accommodating 100,000 seed-nuts. Nuts planted horizontally produce better seedlings than those planted vertically. About 15 weeks after the nut is planted, the shoot appears. At about 30 weeks, when three seed-leaves have developed, seedlings should be planted out. Best spacing 9-10 m on the square, planting 70-150 trees/ha. Young plantation should be fenced to protect plants from cattle, goats, and other wild animals. During the first 3 years, seedlings
should be watered during drought. Cover crops (Centrosema pubescens, Calopogonium mucunoides, or Pueraria phaseoloides) are used and turned under. Catch-crops may be used. There is no evidence that salt is beneficial, as sometimes claimed. Trees begin to bear in 5-6 years, more likely 7-9 years, reach full bearing in 12-13 years. Fruit set to maturity is 8-10 months; 12 months from setting of female flowers. Under good climatic conditions, a fully productive palm produces 12-16 bunches of coconuts per year, each bunch with 8-10 nuts, or 60-100 nuts/tree. Nuts must be harvested fully ripe for making copra or desiccated coconut. For coir, they are picked about one month short of maturity so that husks will be green. Coconuts are usually picked by human climbers or cut by knives attached to end of long bamboo poles, this being the cheapest method. With a pole, a man can pick from 250 palms in a day; by climbing, only 25. In some areas, nuts are allowed to fall naturally and collected regularly. Nuts are husked in field, a good husker handling 2000 nuts/day. Then, nut is split (up to 10,000 nuts/working day). For copra, an average of 6000 nuts are required for 1 ton; 1000 nuts yield 500 lbs or copra, which yields 250 lbs of oil. Average copra yield is 3-4 tons/ha. The U.S. annually imports 190 million lb of coconut oil and more than 650 million lb of copra; some sources state 300,000 tons copra and over 200,000 tons coconut oil annually (NUT). Copra may be cured by sun-drying, or by kiln-drying, or by a combination of both. Sun-drying requires 6-8 consecutive days of good bright sunshine to dry meat without its spoiling. Drying reduces moisture content from 50% to below 7%. Copra is stored in a well-ventilated, dry area. Extraction of oil from copra is one of the oldest seed-crushing industries of the world. Coconut cake is usually retained to feed domestic livestock. When it contains much oil, it is not fed to milk cows but is used as fertilizer. Efficient pressing will yield from 100 kg of copra, approximately 62.5 kg of coconut oil, and 35 kg coconut cake, which contains 7-10% oil. Desiccated coconut is just the white meat; the brown part is peeled off. Dried in driers similar to those for tea. Good desiccated coconut should be white in color, crisp, with a fresh nutty flavor, and should contain less than 20% moisture and 68-72% oil, the extracted oil containing less than 0.1% of free for oil, yielding about 55%. The resulting “poonac” is used for feeding draught cattle. Coconut flour is made from desiccated coconut with oil removed, and the residue dried and ground. However, it does not keep well. Coir fiber obtained from slightly green coconut husks by retting in slightly saline water that is changed frequently (requires up to 10 months); then, husks are rinsed with water and fiber separated by beating with wooden mallets. After drying, the fiber is cleaned and graded. Greater part of coir produced in India is spun into yarn, a cottage industry, and then used for rugs and ropes. In Sri Lanka, most coir consists of mechanically separated mattress and bristle fiber. To produce this, husks are soaked or retted for 1-4 weeks and then crushed between iron rollers before fibers are separated. Bristle fibers are 20-30 cm long; anything shorter is sold as superior mattress fiber. In some areas, dry milling of husks, without retting, is carried on and produces only mattress fiber. For coir, 1000 husks yield about 80 kg per year, giving about 25 kg of bristle fiber and 55 kg of mattress fiber. The separated pith, called bast or dust, is used as fertilizer, since the potash is not leached out. Coconuts may be stored at temperature of 0-1.50C with relative humidity of 75% or less for 1-2 months. In storage, they are subject to loss in weight, drying up of nut milk, and mold. They may be held for 2 weeks at room temperature without serious loss.

Chemistry (Coconut) —

In the CRC Handtopic of Phytochemical Constituents, coconut towers above the other entries for lauric acid, attaining 36%, on a calculated dry weight basis, followed by uchuba (Virola) at 11.5, betel nut at 9.0, datepalm at 5.4, calendula at 1.8, macadam at 1.1, cantaloupe seed at 0.9, cashew at 0.8, ginger at 0.4, water melon seed at 0.3, and mace and thyme at 0.2%, on a rounded and calculated ZMB. Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in coconut. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database .

Alpha-Tocopherol —

Anticancer; Anticonvulsant Synergen; Antimutagenic; Antioxidant (5 x quercetin); Antiradicular (5 x quercetin); Antitumor; RDA = 3-12 mg/day.
Lauric-acid — Antibacterial; Antiviral.
Monolaurin—Antiadenomic ED50 = 23 |ig/ml; Antiplaque; Antitumor (Kidney) ED50 = 4 |ig/ml; Antitumor (Pancreas) ED50 = 2 |ig/ml; Antitumor (Prostate) ED50 = 23 |ig/ml; Artemicide LC50 = 79 Mg/ml; Carioatatic X6963883.
Tocopherol — ADI = 2 mg/kg; Analgesic 100 IU 3 xday; Antiaging; Antiaggregant; Antialzheimeran 2000 IU; Antianginal 1067 mg/man/day; Antiatherosclerotic; Antibronchitic; Anticancer; Anticari-ogenic; Anticataract; Antichorea; Anticoronary 100-200 IU/day; Antidecubitic; Antidermatitic; Antidiabetic 600-1200 mg/day; Antidysmenorrheic; Antiepitheleomic; Antifibrositic; Antiglycosa-tion; Antiherpetic; Antiinflammatory; Antiischaemic; Antileukemic 100-250 [M; Antileukotrienic; Antilithic 600 mg/day; Antilupus; Antimastalgic; AntiMD; AntiMS; Antimyoclonic; Antineuritic; Antinitrosaminic; Antiophthalmic; Antiosteoarthritic; Antioxidant IC50 = 30 |ig/ml, IC95 = 650 [M; Antiparkinsonian?; AntiPMS 300 IU 2 x day; Antiproliferant IC50 = 150 |ig/ml; Antiradicular; Antiretinopathic?; Antisenility; Antisickling; Antispasmodic 300 mg/man/day; Antisterility; Anti-stroke; Antisunburn; Anti-Syndrome-X; Antithalassemic; Antithrombic 600 IU/day; Anti-Thrombox-ane-B2; Antitoxemic; Antitumor 7 \iM ckn; Antitumor (Breast) IC50 = 125 |ig/ml, 100-250 [M; Antitumor (Colorectal) 500-10,000 [M; Antitumor (Prostate)100-250 [M; Antiulcerogenic 67 mg/man/3 x/day/orl; Apoptotic 100-250 [M; Cerebroprotective; Circulostimulant; Hepatoprotective; 5-HETE-Inhibitor; Hypocholesterolemic 100-r50 IU/man/day; Hypoglycemic 600 IU/man/day; Immunostimulant 60-800 IU; Insulin-Sparing 1000 IU; Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor; ODC-Inhibitor 400 mg/kg; p21-Inducer 500-10,000 [M; Phospholipase-A2-Inhibitor; Protein-Kinase-C-Inhibitor 10-50 [|M, IC50 = 450 [|M; Vasodilator; RDA = 2-10 mg/day; PTD = 800 mg/day.

Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. (Burseraceae) African Myrrh, Herabol Myrrh, Myrrh, Somali Myrrh

Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. (Burseraceae) African Myrrh, Herabol Myrrh, Myrrh, Somali Myrrh
Synonyms — Balsamodendrum myrrha Nees, Commiphora molmol (Engl.) Engl., C. myrrha var. molmol Engl.
"I have perfumed my bed with myrrh..." Proverbs 7:17.

Medicinal Uses (Myrrh) —

Myrrh was all but panacea to the ancients; in Mesopotamia and the Greco-Roman world, it was used for abscesses, bladder stones, chilblains, dropsy, earache, eye
problems, fever, hemorrhoids, and rhinosis. Bitter and pungent, the myrrh was esteemed by orientals as an astringent tonic internally and as a cleansing agent externally. In Algeria, myrrh is used to dress suppurations. According to Grieve's A Modern Herbal, myrrh is an emmenagogue, a tonic in dyspepsia, an expectorant, a mucosal stimulant, a stomachic carminative, exciting appetite and gastric juices, and an astringent wash. It is occasionally combined with aloes and iron. To this day, in the U.S., it is used as a mouthwash in gingivosis, for spongy gums, ulcerated throat, and aphthous stomatitis. The tincture is also applied externally to foul and indolent sores. It is useful in bronch-orrhea and leucorrhea, and has served as a vermifuge (BIB).
White et al. (2000) say that myrrh stimulates the thyroid, although scientists still don't know the mechanism. They recommend tinctures rather than tea, since myrrh does offer up its phytochem-icals to water as well as to alcohol. They suggest 1/8 to 1/4 tsp tinctures thrice daily (WAF). Zhu et al. (2001), reporting on six sesquiterpenoids, including two new furanosesquiterpenoids, note that the myrrh extracts or the furanosesquiterpenoids have demonstrated anesthetic, antibacterial, antifungal, and anithyperglycemic activities (JNP64:1460). So the Biblical myrrh is still revealing new secrets two millennia after Christ.

Indications (Myrrh) —

Abrasion (1; CAN); Adnexosis (f; MAD); Alopecia (f; MAD); Amenorrhea
(f; BGB; FEL; MAD; PH2); Aphtha (1; CAN); Asthma (1; APA; FEL; FNF); Atherosclerosis (f;
MAD); Athlete's Foot (1; SKY); Bacteria (1; JNP64:1460); Bedsore (f; APA); Bladder Stone (f; BIB);
Boil (f; PNC); Bronchosis (1; APA; BGB; FEL; FNF); Bruise (f; BOW); Cancer (f; APA; PH2);
Cancer, abdomen (f; PH2); Cancer, colon (f; PH2); Candida (1; BGB; FNF); Canker Sore (1; APA; SKY); Carbuncle (f; PH2); Caries (f; FEL); Catarrh (f; BGB; CAN; FEL); Chilblain (f; BIB); Chlorosis (f; BIB); Circulosis (f; BOW); Cold (1; BGB; CAN; FNF; SKY); Congestion (1; APA; BGB); Cough (f; PH2); Cramp (1; FNF); Decubosis (f; BGB; BOW); Dermatosis (1; APA; FNF; MAD; PH2); Diabetes (1; JNP64:1460); Diarrhea (f; MAD; JNP64:1460); Dropsy (f; BIB); Dysentery (f; MAD); Dysmenorrhea (1; BGB; FNF; PH2); Dyspepsia (f; APA; FEL); Dysuria (f; MAD); Earache (f; BIB); Enterosis (f; PH2); Erysipelas (f; MAD); Fever (f; BIB; MAD); Freckle (f; MAD); Fungus (1; FNF; JNP64:1460); Furunculosis (1; CAN; PH2); Gangrene (f; FEL); Gas (f; APA; MAD); Gastrosis (f; FEL; PH2; PNC; JNP64:1460); Gingivosis (1; APA; FEL; FNF; PNC; SKY); Gleet (f; FEL); Gonorrhea (f; FEL); Halitosis (f; FEL); Hemorrhoid (f; APA; BGB; BIB); Hepatosis (f; MAD); Hoarseness (f; APA); Hypothyroidism (1; WAF); Infection (1; FNF; PH2; JNP64:1460); Infertility (f; MAD); Inflammation (1; BGB; FNF; PH2); Laryngosis (f; FEL); Leprosy (f; APA); Leukorrhea (f; FEL; MAD); Menopause (1; BGB); Menorrhagia (f; MAD); Mononucleosis (f; BOW); Mucososis (1; APA; FEL; PH2); Mycosis (1; JNP64:1460); Nervousness (1; FNF); Odontosis (f; MAD); Ophthalmia (f; BIB); Osteosis (f; BGB); Otosis (f; BOW); Pain (1; JNP64:1460); Pharyngosis (2; APA; FEL; KOM;
MAD; PH2; PNC); Pulmonosis (f; MAD); Respirosis (f; BGB); Rheumatism (f; BGB); Rhinosis (f; APA; BIB); Salpingosis (f; MAD); Side Ache (f; MAD); Sinusosis (1; APA); Sore (1; APA; FEL; FNF; PNC); Sore Throat (2; BGB; FEL; KOM; MAD; SKY); Stomatosis (2; APA; KOM; MAD; PH2; PIP); Swelling (f; APA); Tonsilosis (1; APA; BGB; FEL; PNC); Tuberculosis (f; MAD); Ulcer
(f; APA; PH2; X11113992); Uterosis (f; MAD); Uvulosis (f; FEL); VD (f; FEL); Water Retention (f; MAD); Worm (f; FEL; MAD); Wound (f; APA; BGB); Wrinkle (f; MAD); Yeast (1; BGB; FNF).

Myrrh for gingivosis:

• Antibacterial: acetic-acid; alpha-pinene; cinnamaldehyde; cuminaldehyde; dipentene; eugenol; limonene
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-pinene; cinnamaldehyde; eugenol
• Antioxidant: eugenol
• Antiseptic: eugenol; formic-acid; limonene; m-cresol
• Astringent: formic-acid
• COX-2-Inhibitor: eugenol
• Candidicide: cinnamaldehyde; eugenol
• Candidistat: limonene
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: cinnamaldehyde
• Fungicide: acetic-acid; cinnamaldehyde; cuminaldehyde; eugenol

Myrrh for infection:

• Analgesic: eugenol
• Anesthetic: cinnamaldehyde; eugenol
• Antibacterial: acetic-acid; alpha-pinene; cinnamaldehyde; cuminaldehyde; dipentene; eugenol; limonene
• Antiedemic: eugenol
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-pinene; cinnamaldehyde; eugenol
• Antiseptic: eugenol; formic-acid; limonene; m-cresol
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; cinnamaldehyde; dipentene; limonene
• Astringent: formic-acid
• COX-2-Inhibitor: eugenol
• Circulostimulant: cinnamaldehyde
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: cinnamaldehyde
• Fungicide: acetic-acid; cinnamaldehyde; cuminaldehyde; eugenol
• Fungistat: formic-acid; limonene
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: cinnamaldehyde

Other Uses (Myrrh) —

Long before questions of intellectual property and germplasm rights were issues, Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt, circa 3500 B.P,, sent a treasure hunting expedition to what is today Somalia, land of myrrh and qat. The Queen wanted more myrrh. Reliefs in the temple she built at Deir el Bahari suggest that they brought back plenty of resin and even potted plants. So, for 3500 years, germplasm has been moving from country to country. The Queen, you see, rubbed myrrh on her legs as perfume. During the feast of Isis, when the Egyptians burned oxen as offerings, they stuffed the carcass with frankincense and myrrh to mask the smell of burning flesh (Thieret, 1996). Ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and used it for embalming. Much of the myrrh of commerce today comes from this or closely related species of Arabia, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Highly regarded in the Orient as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. There is even a term "myrrophore" applied to the women who bore spices to the sepulcher of Jesus with aloes, cassia, and cinnamon; it was an ingredient of the holy oil and a domestic perfume. Myrrh is a Jewish holy oil and gets honorable mention in the first topics of Christian, Jewish, and Muslim holy texts (BGB). Some authorities maintain that the Biblical myrrh was in reality a mixture of myrrh and ladanum. Myrrh was burned as incense for the sun god at Heliopolis at noon. Myrrh was introduced into Chinese and Tibetan pharmacy as early as the 7th century C.E. Persian Kings wore myrrh in their crowns. Around 1342, the khan of China sent myrrh among other gifts to Pope Benedict at Avignon, but the shipment was plundered, never reaching its destination (Thieret, 1996). Myrrh and frankincense were even burned during the reign of King George III. One old legend says that Myrrha, daughter of the King of Cyprus, became unnaturally obsessed with her father, who exiled her to the Arabian desert where the gods transformed her into the myrrh tree, "in which guise she remains, weeping tears perfumed of repentance." The pungent gum-resin is used commercially to flavor baked goods, beverages, candy, chewing gum, gelatin, puddings, and soups (FAC). It is also an ingredient in Swedish bitters (FAC). The gum makes a good mucilage, and the insoluble residue from the tincture can be used as a glue (BIB). Import statistics are hard to come by. Scholarly historian Thieret (1996) suggests total yearly production of myrrh is perhaps 500 tons, and of frankincense 1000 tons. Recently, U.S. imports ran 5-20 tons. The U.K. imports ca. 30 tons frankincense each year, one perfume manufacturer alone consuming 5 tons annually (Thieret, 1996).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Myrrh) —

Though much is harvested from the wild (Arabia, Somalia, Yemen), some is cultivated in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania. Needs well drained sunny areas, with minimum temperatures 10-150C (50-60°F). Propagated by seeds sown in spring or hardwood cuttings at the end of the growing season (Bown, 2001). Whether harvested from the wild or cultivars, cuts in the bark ooze forth tears of myrrh (BGB). Natives cut the bark, causing the exudation of a yellowish oleoresin, which hardens on exposure to the air and turns reddish-brown (GEO).

Chemistry (Myrrh) —

Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in myrrh. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
Cinnamaldehyde — See also Cinnamomum verum.
Curzerone — Antitumor.
Furano-Eudesma-1, 3-Diene — Analgesic; 50 mg/kg orl mus; Myorelaxant 50 mg/kg orl mus. Lindstrene — Hepatoprotective.

Costus speciosus (J. Konig) Sm. (Costaceae. Also placed in Zingiberaceae) Cane Reed, Crepe Ginger, Wild Ginger

Synonym —

Banksea speciosa J. Konig

Medicinal Uses (Cane Reed) —

Asians consider the rhizomes anthelminthic, depurative, laxative, and tonic (KAB, WOI). Ayurvedics use it in "kapha" and "vata," and in Western terms, for anemia, bronchitis, fever, hiccups, inflammation, and lumbago (KAB). It is reportedly used in India for colds, pneumonia, and rheumatism (IHB). The Malayan name, setawar, means "remover of virus." Malays chew it with betel for cough (IHB). The decoction is used to bathe patients with high fever. It is even splattered on elephants suffering fever. They also poultice bruised leaves onto the heads of feverish patients. Malays use it for humans inhabited by evil spirits. Javanese apply the rhizome in syphilis. Jain and Defilipps (1991) suggest that the rhizome is used as an antispasmodic, antipyretic, CNS-depressant, diuretic, and tonic (SKJ). Leaves are used for scabies and stomach ailments. Stem is used for blisters and burns. Bark used for cholera. Gruenwald et al. (2000) say that, in Asian Indian medicine, the roots and/or rhizomes are used for very different circumstances, making me suspect they may have confused kust ("Costus" Latin) with kuth or costus (colloquial) root (Saussurea). But how will we ever know? They suggest that the cane reed is used for insufficient uterine contractility, post-partum bleeding, retention of the placenta, threatening abortion (PH2). They also say that overdoses might lead to European cholera; maybe that means dysentery or diarrhea (JAD).
Steroid-like compounds isolated from the plant have antiarthritic, antifertility, and antiinflam-matory capacity (SKJ). The saponin fraction has antiexudative, choleretic, estrogenic, and antis-pasmodic effects and potentiates or prolongs anesthesia (PH2). I am pleasantly surprised to find that PH2 lists curcumin, the active ingredient that I don't often find outside the ginger family, which is admittedly closely related to the costus or ginger lilies. If curcumin is confirmed, then the cane ginger shares in COX-2-Inhibitory activity, proportionate to the levels of curcumin.
Medicinal Plants of India gives some interesting data. Alkaloids from the plant show in vitro and in vivo anticholinesterase activities, perhaps explaining the depurative and ophthalmic activity (MPI). C. speciosus was found to be 2.5 times more ecbolic than Gloriosa superba, enough to make me advise pregnant women to avoid both. Saponins from the herb caused proliferation of
uterine and vaginal tissues, similar to those produced by stilbosterol (MPI). These saponins also had antiarthritic and antiinflammatory activities. Habsah et al. (2000) screening dichloromethane and methanol extracts of 13 Zingiberaceae species (Alpinia, Costus, and Zingiber) for antimicrobial and antioxidant activities found all to be antibacterial. Only the methanol extract of Costus discolor showed potent antifungal activity against Aspergillus ochraceous. All extracts were antioxidant and comparable with alpha-tocopherol (X10996279).

Indications (Cane Reed) —

Abortion (f; PH2); Adenoma (1; FNF; FT68:483); Alzheimer's (1;
FNF); Anasarca (f; SKJ); Anemia (f; KAB); Arthrosis (1; FNF; MPI; SKJ); Asthma (1; SKJ;
HG37:18); Atherosclerosis (1; FT68:483); Bite (f; PH2; SKJ); Bleeding (f; PH2); Blister (f; SKJ);
Bronchosis (f; KAB); Burn (f; SKJ); Cancer (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, colon (1; FNF); Cataract (1;
FNF; FT68:483); Catarrh (f; DEP; MPI); Childbirth (f; PH2); Cholecystosis (1; PAM); Cholera (f; SKJ); Cold (1; FNF; IHB; SKJ); Colitis (1; HG37:18); Conjunctivosis (f; BOW); Constipation (f; BOW; SKJ); Cough (f; DEP; IHB; MPI; PH2; SKJ); Crohn's Disease (1; HG37:18); Dermatosis (f; DEP; IHB; MPI; PH2); Dog Bite (f; SKJ); Dropsy (f; SKJ); Dysentery (f; IHB); Dyspepsia (f; KAB; MPI); Eczema (1; IWU); Edema (1; FNF; PCF:338); Fever (f; DEP; IHB; MPI; PH2; SKJ); Fungus (1; FNF); Gastrosis (f; SKJ); Gravel (f; SKJ); Headache (f; SKJ); Hematuria (f; SKJ); Hepatosis (1; FNF); Hiccup (f; KAB); High Cholesterol (1; FNF); Impotence (f; BOW); Infection (1; FNF); Inflammation (1; FNF; KAB; MPI); Ischemia (1; PFH44:87); Leishmaniasis (1; X10865470); Leprosy (f; IHB); Leukemia (1; FT68:483); Lumbago (f; KAB); Lymphoma (1; FNF); Malaria (f; SKJ); Melanoma (1; FNF); Mycosis (1; FNF); Ophthalmia (f; IHB; MPI); Osteosis (f; KAB); Otosis (f; BOW); Pain (f; KAB); Phthisis (f; SKJ); Pneumonia (f; IHB); Psoriasis (1; FNF); Pulmonosis (1; FNF); Rabies (f; DAA); Rheumatism (1; FNF; IHB; KAB; SKJ); Scabies (f; SKJ); Smallpox (f; BOW; IHB); Snakebite (f; MPI; PH2; SKJ); Stomatosis (f; JLH); Stone (1; FNF); Swelling (1; FNF); Syphilis (f; IHB); Thirst (f; SKJ); Thrombosis (1; FNF); Tuberculosis (f; SKJ); Worm (f; MPI).

Cane Reed for arthrosis:

• 12-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Antiarthritic: curcumin
• Antiedemic: curcumin
• Antiinflammatory: curcumin; curcuminoids; diosgenin
• Antiprostaglandin: curcumin; curcuminoids
• Antispasmodic: curcumin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: curcumin

Cane Reed for infection:

• Antibacterial: curcumin
• Antiedemic: curcumin
• Antiinflammatory: curcumin; curcuminoids; diosgenin
• Antiviral: curcumin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Fungicide: curcumin
• Immunostimulant: curcumin

Other Uses (Cane Reed) —

Used as a food plant in S.E. Asia, where it's called "Tebu" and "Setawar." Tender young shoots are boiled or steamed as a vegetable, often in coconut milk; the fruits and rhizomes are also eaten (FAC). In India, the nonaromatic, astringent, fibrous, mucilaginous
rhizome is eaten, often cooked in syrup or preserves. The rhizome is said to taste like a cucumber (IHB). Often cultivated as an ornamental. It is used in fishing and magic ceremonies (IHB). Drug sometimes used to adulterate Gloriosa.
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Cane Reed) —

Cultivated and harvested like ginger relatives and other ginger lilies. Apparently does best in moist, rich, neutral to acid, well-drained soils in shade, tropical climates with high humidity and minimum temperature 13°C (55°F). Seeds sown as soon as ripe at temperatures close to 20°C (68°F). Root divisions in fall (Bown, 2001). Harvested as needed.

Chemistry (Cane Reed) —

With some 3% curcuminoids (FNF), cane reed may be a weak cousin to some of the other zingiberaceous species, like turmeric (which ranges from 3-8% curcuminoids). Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in cane reed. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
Curcumin — ADI = 100 Hg/kg; Antiaflatoxic IC50 = 81 \\M; Antiadenomacarcinogenic 50-200 mg/kg ipr rat; Antiaggregant; Antiangiogenic; Antiarachidonate; Antiarthritic; Antiasthmatic; Antiatherosclerotic 0.4-20 mg/kg/day; Antibacterial; Antibronchitic; Anticancer; Anticataract 75 mg/kg orl rat; Anticholecystosic; Anticolitic; Anticollagenic; AntiCrohn's; AntiEBV IC50 = 5.4 |iM; Antieczemic; Antiedemic ED50 = 100.2 mg/kg orl mus (cf 78 for cortisone) ED50 = 48 mg/kg orl rat (cf 45 for cortisone, 48 for phenylbutazone); Antieicosanoid; Antihepatosis; Anti-HIV IC50 = 40 |iM; Antiinflammatory 1200 mg/man/day, 1 |iM; Antiintegrase 40-150 |iM; Antiischemic; Antileishmannic IC50 = 7.8 | g/ml; Antileukemic; Antileukotriene 170 mg/kg orl rat; Antilipoperoxidant; Antilithic 0.5% diet; Antilymphomic 0.4 mg/ml, 4 |ig/ml; Antimelanomic 200 nM/kg orl mus; Antimetastatic 200 nM/kg orl mus; Antimutagenic; Antinitrosaminic; Anti-oxidant IC50 = 500 \\M; Antipapillomic; Antiperoxidant; Antiproliferant IC50 = 13 \iM; Anti-prostaglandin 8.8 | M; Antipsoriatic; Antispasmodic; Antithrombic; Antithromboxane; Antitumor (Breast); Antitumor (Colon); Antitumor (Duodenum); Antitumor (Liver) 10 | M; Antitumor (Mammary) 50-200 mg/kg ipr rat; Antitumor (Skin); Antitumor-Promoter IC91 = 10 | M; Anti-ulcer orl rat; Antiviral IC50 = 5.4 \xM; Apoptotic 30-90 \yM, 150-2000 ppm (diet) orl rat; Cardiodepressant; Chelator IC50 = 500 | M; Chelator (Iron); Cholagogue; Choleretic; COX-2-Inhibitor 10-20 | M; Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor; Cytochrome-p450-Inhibitor; Cytotoxic 0.4-4 mg/ml, IC50 = 1 | g/ml, IC50 = 25 | M; Deodorant; Detoxicant; DNA-Protectant; Dye; Fibrin-olytic; Fungicide; Glutathionigenic 80 mg/kg igs rat; Hepatoprotective 30 ppm, 30 mg/kg/day; 5-HETE-Inhibitor IC50 = 3-10 \\M; 8-HETE-Inhibitor IC40 = 3 \\M; Hypocholesterolemic 0.15% diet 7 wks; Hypolipidemic 0.15% diet 7 wks; Hypotensive; Immunostimulant 40 mg/kg/5 wk orl rat; Liptase-Promoter; 5-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor; 12-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor; Litholytic 0.5% diet; Maltase-Promoter; Metal-Chelator; MMP-9-Inhibitor 10 pM; Nematicide; Neuroprotective 80 mg/kg igs rat; NO-Scavenger; ODC-Inhibitor ED = ~150 mg/kg; P-450-Inhibitor IC50 = 2-14 | g/ml; PGE2-Inhibitor IC42 = 3 | M; Phototoxic; Plasmodicide; Protease-Inhibitor IC50 = 11-250 \xM; Protein-Kinase-C-Inhibitor IC69 = 15 \\M, IC50 = 15 \xM; Protein-Kinase-Inhibitor; PTK-Inhibitor 5-100 \\M; Pulmonoprotective 200 mg/kg/7 d; Quinone-Reductase-Inducer 3.4 | M; Radioprotective; 5-Alpha-Reductase-Inhibitor; Sucrase-Promoter; Topoisomerase-I-Inhibi-tor; Topoisomerase-II-Inhibitor; Ulcerogenic orl rat; TD = >5000 mg/kg orl rat; LDlo = >2000 mg/kg orl mus; LDlo = >1800 mg/kg orl rat.
Curcuminoids — Antiinflammatory; Antimitotic; Antiprostaglandin; Antitumor; Cholagogue; Cyto-toxic; Leukotriene-Inhibition; Ulcerogenic?.
Diosgenin — Antifatigue; Antiinflammatory; Antistress; Estrogenic 20-40 mg/kg/day/15 day scu mus; Hepatoprotective; Hypocholesterolemic; Mastogenic 20-40 mg/kg/day/15 day scu mus.

Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae) Saffron

Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae) Saffron

Medicinal Uses (Saffron) —

Saffron is not included in American and British pharmacopoeias, but some Indian medical formulae still include it. Saffron is used to promote eruption of measles, and in small doses is considered antihysteric, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, diaphoretic, ecbolic, emmenagogue, expectorant, sedative, stimulant, and stomachic. It is an oft-cited folk remedy for various types of cancer. It is sometimes used to promote menstruation. Early on, it was taken as a preventive against the plague and other epidemics. In Biblical times, saffron was important in some ancient herbals, its extracts used as an antispasmodic, emmenagogue, and general stimulant and tonic. Early Eclectics valued it for amenorrhea, chlorosis, dysmenorrhea, hysteria, menorrhagia, and suppression of lochial discharge. In India, saffron is regarded for bladder, kidney, and liver ailments, also for cholera. Mixed with "ghee," it is used for diabetes. Saffron oil is applied externally to uterine sores (BIB, CRC). Lebanese add a dozen pistils to a large cup hot water for children coming down with chickenpox, measles, or mumps. Germans take it in milk for measles (MAD). Algerians and Gypsies use the saffron infusion as a collyrium. Eight to ten filaments (stigmata) per cup of tea is suggested as a narcotic for asthma, hysteria, or whooping cough (BIB, LIL, MAD, PH2, RIN). Small saffron doses stimulate the flow of gastric juices, large doses stimulate the smooth muscle of the uterus (PH2). Overdoses are reportedly narcotic, and saffron corms are toxic to young animals. Apoplexy and extravagant gaiety are possible after effects.
Kazuho and Saito (2000) review pharmacological studies showing saffron extracts have anti-tumor effects, radical scavenger properties, or hypolipemic effects. Among the constituents of saffron extract, crocetin is mainly responsible for these pharmacological activities. They stress recent behavioral and electrophysiological studies, demonstrating that saffron extract affects learning and memory in experimental animals. Saffron extract improved ethanol-induced impairments of learning behaviors in mice and prevented ethanol-induced inhibition of hippocampal long-term potentiation, a form of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity that may underlie learning and memory. Memory-sparing effect of saffron extract is attributed to crocin (crocetin di-gentiobiose ester), but not crocetin. Saffron extract or its active constituents, crocetin and crocin, could be useful as a treatment for neurodegenerative disorders accompanying memory impairment. So maybe if you must imbibe, a saffron liqueur might be the liqueur of choice. The Saffron occurs in several liqueurs. In what I call "Brandy Swifter," a cup of saffron tea, heavily charged with brandy, has been used for measles. Others suggest three spoonfuls or more of Saffron Cordial for those who "have taken too liberal a cup over night" (LIL).
Crocin is choleretic, but many herbs, if not all, contain choleretics. Choleretics stimulate the production of bile, the bitter substance that emulsifies fats in the duodenum, stimulates peristalsis, thereby encouraging movement of food along the GI tract. While useful in moderation in healthy people, choleretics might be contraindicated for those with gallbladder or liver diseases.
Premkumar et al. (2001) found that saffron inhibited genotoxicity, at least in mice, hinting that it might spare some side effects of chemotherapy. Saffron modulated in vivo genotoxicity of cisplatin, cyclophosphamide, mitomycin C, and urethane. Swiss albino mice were pretreated five days with three doses (20, 40, and 80 mg/kg body weight) aqueous saffron extract. Treatment with the genotoxins alone significantly inhibited GST activity. Saffron pretreatment attenuated the inhibitory effects of the genotoxins on GST activity (X11665650).
Martinez-Tome et al. (2001) comparing antioxidant properties of Mediterranean spices, compared annatto, cumin, oregano, sweet and hot paprika, rosemary, and saffron, at 5% concentration with the common food additives (butylated hydroxyanisole [BHA], butylated hydroxytoluene [BHT], and propyl gallate) at 100 [g/g. For inhibiting lipid peroxidation: rosemary > oregano > propyl gallate > annatto > BHA > sweet paprika > cumin > hot paprika > saffron > BHT. So 5% saffron was slightly better than 100 [g/g BHT as an antioxidant (Martinez-Tome et al., 2001).
Kubo and Kinst-Hori (1999) reported that the common flavonol, kaempferol, isolated from the fresh flower petals of saffron, inhibited tyrosinase (ID50 = 6700 mg/ml (0.23 mM). Not very potent, methinks. More important perhaps is the COX-2-Inhibitory action of kaempferol.
Indications (Saffron) — Adenosis (f; JLH); Aegilops (f; JLH); Amenorrhea (1; CRC; MAD; PH2); Asthma (f; MAD); Bacteria (1; FNF); Bladder Ailment (f; CRC); Bleeding (f; DAA; MAD); Blood Disorder (f; CRC); Bronchosis (f; PH2); Burn (f; JLH); Cacoethes (f; JLH); Cancer (1; APA; FNF; PR14:149); Cancer, abdomen (1; APA; CRC); Cancer, bladder (1; APA; CRC); Cancer, breast (1; APA; CRC; JLH); Cancer, colon (1; APA; JLH); Cancer, diaphragm (1; APA; JLH); Cancer, ear (1; APA; CRC); Cancer, eye (1; APA; JLH); Cancer, kidney (1; APA; CRC); Cancer, larynx (1; APA; JLH); Cancer, liver (1; APA; CRC); Cancer, mouth (1; APA; CRC); Cancer, neck (1; APA; CRC); Cancer, spleen (1; APA; CRC); Cancer, stomach (1; APA; CRC; JLH); Cancer, testicle (1 APA; JLH); Cancer, throat (1; APA; JLH); Cancer, tonsil (1; APA; CRC); Cancer, uterus (1; APA; CRC; JLH);
Cardiopathy (f; APA); Catarrh (f; CRC; SKJ); Childbirth (f; DAA; PH2); Cholera (f; CRC); Chorea (f; HHB; MAD); Cold (f; CRC); Condyloma (f; DAA); Conjunctivosis (f; MAD); Cough (f; DAA; MAD); Cramp (f; DAA; HHB); Cystosis (f; JLH); Depression (f; CRC; DAA; PNC); Dermatosis (f;
CRC); Diabetes (f; CRC); Dysmenorrhea (f; DAA; HHB; MAD PNC); Edema (1; APA; FNF); Encephalosis (1; APA); Enterosis (f; JLH); Epistaxis (f; MAD); Fear (f; CRC; DAA); Fever (f; CRC; PH2); Fibroid (f; JLH); Fungus (1; FNF); Gas (f; MAD); Gastrosis (f; JLH); Gout (f; MAD); Hangover
(f; LIL); Headache (f; PH2); Hemoptysis (f; DAA; MAD); Hepatosis (1; CRC; FNF; JLH; SKJ);
High Blood Pressure (1; APA; FNF); High Cholesterol (1; APA; FNF); HIV (1; FNF); Hysteria (f; CRC; DAA; MAD); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; FNF); Inflammation (1; FNF; JLH); Lachri-mosis (f; JLH); Laryngosis (f; JLH); Leukemia (f; JLH); Lochiostasis (f; PH2); Lymphoma (1; APA;
JLH); Measles (f; CRC; DAA; MAD); Melancholy (f; CRC; HHB); Menorrhagia (f; HHB; PH2);
Menoxenia (f; CRC); Nephrosis (f; JLH); Neurosis (1; CRC; FNF); Obesity (1; FNF; PR14:149);
Ophthalmia (f; JLH); Orchosis (f; JLH); Pain (1; DAA; FNF); Parotosis (f; JLH); Pertussis (f; BIB;
DAA; MAD); Phymata (f; JLH); Plague (f; MAD); Puerperium (f; CRC); Sclerosis (f; CRC); Shock (f; CRC; DAA); Snakebite (f; SKJ); Sore Throat (f; PH2); Spasm (f; CRC); Splenosis (f; CRC; JLH);
Swelling (1; APA); Tonsilosis (f; JLH); Twitching (f; MAD); Uterosis (f; CRC; DAA; JLH); VD (f;
CRC; DAA); Vertigo (f; MAD); Vomiting (f; PH2); Wart (f; CRC).

Saffron for cancer:

• AntiHIV: myricetin; oleanolic-acid; quercetin
• Antiaggregant: kaempferol; quercetin; salicylates
• Anticancer: alpha-pinene; beta-myrcene; camphor; delphinidin; geraniol; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; lycopene; myricetin; oleanolic-acid; quercetin
• Antifibrosarcomic: quercetin
• Antihepatotoxic: oleanolic-acid; quercetin
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; borneol; kaempferol; myricetin; oleanolic-acid; quercetin; salicylates
• Antileukemic: astragalin; kaempferol; quercetin
• Antileukotriene: quercetin
• Antilipoperoxidant: quercetin
• Antimelanomic: geraniol; quercetin
• Antimutagenic: crocetin; kaempferol; limonene; myricetin; quercetin
• Antinitrosaminic: quercetin
• Antioxidant: crocetin; cyanidin; delphinidin; gamma-terpinene; kaempferol; lycopene; malvidin; myricetin; oleanolic-acid; quercetin
• Antiperoxidant: quercetin
• Antiproliferant: quercetin
• Antisarcomic: oleanolic-acid
• Antitumor: crocetin; geraniol; kaempferol; limonene; lycopene; oleanolic-acid; quercetin
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; myricetin; oleanolic-acid; p-cymene;quercetin
• Apoptotic: kaempferol; myricetin; quercetin
• Beta-Glucuronidase-Inhibitor: oleanolic-acid
• COX-2-Inhibitor: kaempferol; oleanolic-acid; quercetin
• Chemopreventive: limonene
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: kaempferol; oleanolic-acid; quercetin
• Cytochrome-p450-Inducer: 1,8-cineole
• Cytotoxic: quercetin
• Hepatoprotective: borneol; oleanolic-acid; quercetin; zeaxanthin
• Hepatotonic: 1,8-cineole
• Immunostimulant: astragalin
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: kaempferol; myricetin; quercetin
• Mast-Cell-Stabilizer: quercetin
• Ornithine-Decarboxylase-Inhibitor: limonene; quercetin
• p450-Inducer: 1,8-cineole; quercetin
• PTK-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Previtamin-A: gamma-carotene
• Protein-Kinase-C-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Topoisomerase-II-Inhibitor: kaempferol; myricetin; quercetin
• Tyrosine-Kinase-Inhibitor: myricetin; quercetin

Saffron for infection:

• Analgesic: borneol; camphor; p-cymene; quercetin; vitamin-b-1
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; camphor; linalool
• Antibacterial: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; beta-phenylethanol; geraniol; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; myricetin; oleanolic-acid; p-cymene; pinene; quercetin; terpinen-4-ol
• Antiedemic: oleanolic-acid
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; borneol; kaempferol; myricetin; oleanolic-acid; quercetin; salicylates
• Antiseptic: 1,8-cineole; beta-pinene; camphor; geraniol; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; myricetin; oleanolic-acid; pinene; terpinen-4-ol
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; myricetin; oleanolic-acid; p-cymene; quercetin
• Bacteristat: quercetin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: kaempferol; oleanolic-acid; quercetin
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: kaempferol; oleanolic-acid; quercetin
• Fungicide: 1,8-cineole; camphor; geraniol; linalool; p-cymene; pinene; quercetin; ter-pinen-4-ol; terpinolene
• Fungistat: limonene
• Immunostimulant: astragalin
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: kaempferol; myricetin; quercetin
Other Uses (Saffron) — In Biblical times, saffron was important to people of the East as a condiment and sweet perfume, the stigmas being particularly valued for their food-coloring property. Dioscorides mentions its use as a perfume. Pliny records that the benches of the public theaters were strewn with saffron, and the costly petals were placed in small fountains, to diffuse the scent into public halls. Today, saffron the dye, dried stigmata of the flowers, is more important as a culinary spice than as a medicine. In Europe, it is used as a flavoring and coloring ingredient, and druggists add it to medicines. In India, they are used to add yellow shades to curry. Saffron is cultivated for the dye obtained from the stigmas of the flowers; about 100,000 flowers yield 1 kg saffron. Dye used chiefly as a coloring agent and spice in cookery (especially Spanish), for biscuits, bouillabaisse, butter, cakes, cheese, creams, curries, eggs, liqueurs, preserves, puddings, rice dishes (e.g., biryani, paella, risotto), soups, stews, especially chicken dishes, and in confectionery to give color, flavor, and aroma. It is used as a spice with fish, shellfish, or poultry creating such famous dishes as Spanish paella, French bouillabaisse, and Pennsylvania Dutch chicken pot pies (AAR). For biryanis and elegant Persian rice dishes, some rice is spooned into the golden-warm saffron water, gelded, and returned to the ungelded rice. Fruits also blend well with saffron; saffron creams and ice creams are real treats. Never saute saffron threads with anything, especially onions, at the beginning of a recipe (AAR). Stigmata used as a tea substitute. Roots are eaten roasted (FAC). Used in cosmetics for eyebrows and nail polishes and as incense. It has also been used as a mild deodorant. Dissolved in water, it is used as an ink and is applied to foreheads on religious and ceremonial occasions. The gold of cookery is now as expensive as the gold of jewelry (BIB, CRC). Being very expensive, saffron is almost always adulterated with Calendula, Carthamus, Curcuma, or Tagetes. It should not be stored real hot or real cold. Do not refrigerate or freeze, but keep in a cool dry place (AAR). Properly stored, it can last three years (BIB, CRC, LIL, TAD).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.
Cultivation (Saffron) — For the gardener, bulbs (corms) are planted in late spring, 4-6 in deep in well-prepared, well-drained soil, in full sun or only partially shaded sites. Thriving in a dry Mediterranean climate, saffron can be grown by cautious herbalists in colder, wetter climates. Hardy to zone 6 (LIL). Usually planted in raised beds, occasionally with drains on four sides, especially in waterlogged areas, often monocultured. If skillfully intercropped, weeding may be kept to a minimum. Some recommend 6-in spacing between the corms. Flowering in fall,
the flowers or stigmas are hand picked and quickly and carefully dried with low heat. One needs avoid high humidity and/or hard frost at flowering time, a period of only about three weeks. Yields run pretty close to 10 lb/a dried saffron but may exceed 25. After about three crops in Mediterranean countries, the bulbs are taken up and replanted elsewhere. It takes more than a ton of bulbs to plant an acre. For production agriculture, some 3500 kg corms will plant a hectare (ca. 3500 lb/acre). Planting begins in March by plowing to a depth of 25-30 cm, after removing all stones, roots, and rubbish. Second plowing and manuring are in April or early May, to a depth of 10-15 cm. Middle-sized tubers, sound and without external covering, planted in double rows at bottom of trenches, 15-20 cm apart in rows. Trenches should be 10-12 cm deep and 45 cm wide. Soil of new trench used to fill preceding trench, with a deep wide furrow being made every four to six rows. Thorough cultivation and freedom of weeds are essential. Saffron is usually grown in monoculture but may be overcropped with lettuce, cucumbers, or radishes during period when bulb is dormant, which is from late May until September, when the flowers come up. In September, soil is dug 6-7 cm deep between trenches, and in October, before flowering, soil is lightly hoed. After harvest, soil between trenches is dug to a depth of 12-15 cm. At end of April or beginning of May, leaves are cut and dried for fodder. After the fourth crop, the entire plot is dug up in May, tubers graded, the best ones saved for new plantings, and the remainder sold as livestock feed. Saffron is a good alternative for opium poppies; grows well under similar climate and soil conditions, requires much hand labor, and brings as high a price on world markets as opium. Harvest period does not coincide with rice harvest as opium tapping does (CFR, LIL).
Chemistry (Saffron) — Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in saffron. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
Crocetin — Anticancer (Skin) 3 | m; Antihypoxic; Antimutagenic; Antioxidant; Antitumor-Pro-moter 3 | m; Choleretic 100 mg/kg; Colorant; Hypocholesterolemic; Lipolytic; Neuroprotective.
Crocin — Choleretic 100 mg/kg; Colorant; Dye; Neuroprotective.
Kaempferol — See also Alpinia officinarum.

Cunila origanoides (L.) Britton (Lamiaceae) American Dittany, Dittany, Frost Flower, Frost Mint, land Dittany, Mountain Dittany, Stone Mint

Cunila origanoides (L.) Britton (Lamiaceae) American Dittany, Dittany, Frost Flower, Frost Mint, land Dittany, Mountain Dittany, Stone Mint

Synonyms —

Cunila mariana L., Satureja origanoides L.
Medicinal Uses (Frost Mint) — Reportedly, dittany is called “feverwort” in Arkansas and is used for headache and snakebite. It is also used dry or fresh for tea. Wild dittany was reportedly used by Native Americans and early American settlers for colds and fever. I find the dittany attractive, summer or winter, and truly believe that a January tea of the aromatic dead stalks of Cunila and Monarda helped break up a bad, lingering cough. I suspect expectorant and antiseptic properties reside even in the dead stems persisting in the winter. The smell of thymol and carvacrol are still there, with all their medicinal virtues. I like the quote Organic Gardening attributes to famed pharmacognocist Norman Farnsworth in their first issue of the last decade of this millennium (January 1990, p. 54), “Thymol has been found to loosen phlegm in the respiratory tract…. It also has been shown to act as an antitussive which will relieve coughing.” I think it will be just as promising for backache. If I had a backache and a lot of dittany, I’d drink dittany tea and maybe even add a little to my bath water. The oil is said to be a stimulant aromatic. Because of its high content of thymol, it is probably a good antiseptic as well. But don’t overdo the thymol, it can irritate mucous membranes. Even GRAS herbs should be used in moderation. It seems that thymol and carvacrol often run in tandem. I suspect within a species, if one is high, the other is compen-satorily low. Thymol is also said to be antispasmodic.

Indications (Frost Mint) —

Acne (1; FNF); Alzheimer’s (1; FNF); Arthrosis (1; FNF); Atherosclerosis (1; FNF); Backache (1; FNF); Bacteria (1; FNF); Bronchosis (1; FNF); Candida (1; FNF); Caries (1; FNF); Childbirth (f; BOW; DEM); Cold (1; FAD; FNF); Congestion (1; FNF);
Cough (1; FNF); Cramp (1; FNF); Depression (1; FNF); Dermatosis (1; FNF); Fever (f; BOW;
DEM; FAD; HHB); Flu (1; FNF); Fungus (1; FNF); Headache (1; BOW; DEM; FAD; FNF);
Halitosis (1; FNF); Herpes (1; FNF); Infection (1; FNF); Inflammation (1; FNF); Melancholy (1; FNF); Mycosis (1; FNF); Neurosis (1; FNF); Pain (1; FNF); Periodontosis (1; FNF); Plaque (1; FNF); Rheumatism (1; FNF); Snakebite (f; FAD; HHB); Staphylococcus (1; FNF); Streptococcus (1; FNF); Trichinosis (1; FNF); Trichomonas (1; FNF); UTI (1; FNF); Virus (1; FNF); Worm (1; FNF); Yeast (1; FNF).

Frost Mint for backache:

• Analgesic: myrcene; p-cymene
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; carvacrol; myrcene; thymol
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-pinene; carvacrol; caryophyllene; thymol
• Antirheumatalgic: p-cymene
• Antirheumatic: thymol
• Antispasmodic: carvacrol; caryophyllene; limonene; myrcene; thymol
• Counterirritant: 1,8-cineole; thymol
• Myorelaxant: thymol
• Sedative: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; limonene
• Tranquilizer: alpha-pinene

Frost Mint for cold:

• Analgesic: myrcene; p-cymene
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; carvacrol; myrcene; thymol
• Antiallergic: 1,8-cineole
• Antibacterial: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; carvacrol; caryophyllene; limonene; myrcene; p-cymene; thymol
• Antibronchitic: 1,8-cineole; thymol
• Antiflu: alpha-pinene; limonene; p-cymene
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; carvacrol; caryophyllene; thymol
• Antioxidant: carvacrol; gamma-terpinene; myrcene; thymol
• Antipharyngitic: 1,8-cineole
• Antiseptic: 1,8-cineole; beta-pinene; carvacrol; limonene; thymol
• Antitussive: 1,8-cineole; carvacrol; thymol
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; limonene; p-cymene
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: carvacrol; thymol
• Expectorant: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; carvacrol; limonene; thymol

Other Uses (Frost Mint) —

Dittany could be substituted for any of the other high-carvacrol/thymol plants (Monarda, Origanum, Satureja, Thymus), one for the other, as pizza herbs—at least in my kitchen. If I had pizza with cheese and tomato, and no spices, I’d add a little dittany in lieu of oregano. Grieve’s Herbal speaks of “oil of dittany, which is stated to contain about 40 per cent of phenols, probably thymol.” A former associate, Jeff Strachan, noted that when he brought potted plants into the greenhouse, most of the whiteflies (Prialeuroydes vaporianum) migrated to his dittany for a few days. Then, after populations built up on the dittany, the whiteflies returned to the other host plants, in even greater numbers. Some of the aromatic compounds in the dittany might lure whiteflies to some fatal trap. Dr. John Neil, USDA entomologist, looked into this at the USDA but was not able to confirm this trap concept. Too bad!
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Frost Mint) —

In early autumn, this old botanist’s fancy turns to frost flowers. The first weekend in October, I head for what I call “frost flower fen,” where there is an abundance of the plants, and I dig a new stash for the winter. Not for my pizza pies, but so I’ll have flowers every month of the year. For almost a decade now, I have had flowers 12 months of the year, Thanksgiving, Christmas Day, New Year’s Day, etc., at least when the temperatures got well below freezing the night before. I have grown the plant from seed and transplanted in spring and fall, and during thaws in midwinter. It seems to tolerate dry, well-drained slopes in semi-shady open hardwood forests in the Piedmont and low Mountains. Tucker and Debaggio (2000) note that it is hardy to zone 6, preferring light shade, moist but well-drained rich soil with leaf mold. Normally propagated by divisions or seeds in early spring.

Chemistry (Frost Mint) —

The aromatic chemicals in frost flower share the essences of European oreganos, savory, and thyme, like our American dittany and horsebalm (Monarda), all good anti-spasmodic herbs, loaded with carvacrol and thymol. Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in frost mint. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
Carvacrol — Anesthetic; Anthelminthic; Antiatherosclerotic IC50 = 5.53 [M; Antibacterial MIC = 39-625, MIC 170-290; Anticholinesterase?; Antidiuretic; Antiinflammatory IC50 = 4 [M; Antimelanomic IC50 = 120 [M/l; Antioxidant; Antioxidant (LDL) IC50 = 5.53 [M; Antiplaque MIC = 39-625 [g/ml; Antiprostaglandin; Antiradicular (600 x thymol); Antiseptic (1.5 x phenol); Antispasmodic; Antistaphylococcic; Antistreptococcic; Antitussive; Candidi-cide MIC <0.1 [g/ml, 100-150 [g/ml; Carminative; Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor (= indometha-cin); Enterorelaxant; Expectorant; Fungicide; Insectifuge; Irritant; Nematicide MLC = 1 mg/ml; Tracheorelaxant; Trichomonicide LD100 = 150 [g/ml; Vermifuge; LD50 = 810 orl rat; LDlo
= 100 orl rbt.
P-Cymene — Analgesic; Antiacetylcholinesterase IC40 = 1.2 mM; Antibacterial; Antiflu; Antirheu-matalgic; Antiviral; Fungicide; Herbicide IC50 = 50 [M; Insectifuge; Irritant; Laxative; Sedative; Trichomonicide LD100 = 50 [g/ml; LD50 = 4750 mg/kg orl rat.
Thymol — Analgesic; Anesthetic; Ankylostomacide; Antiacne; Antiaggregant IC50 = 0.75; Anti-arthritic; Antiatherosclerotic IC50 = 4 [M; Antibacterial MIC = 50-400 [g/ml; Antibronchitic; Anticariogenicic MIC = 200-400 [g/ml; Anticholinesterase; Antihalitosic; Antiherpetic; Antiin-flammatory (= indomethacin); Antilepric; Antimelanomic IC50 = 120 [M/l; Antineuritic; Antioxidant 100 ppm; Antioxidant (LDL) IC50 = 4 \\M; Antiperiodontic MIC = 50-200 [g/ml; Antiplaque MIC = 39-625 [g/ml; Antiradicular EC = 60; Antirheumatic; Antisalmonellic; Antiseptic 20 x phenol; Antispasmodic; Antistaphylococcic; Antistreptococcic MIC = 200-400 [g/ml; Ataxigenic; Antispasmodic; Antitrichinosic 5%; Antitussive; Candidicide 100 [g/ml (>Nystatin); Carminative; Counterirritant; Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor (= indomethacin); Dentifrice; Deodorant; Dermatiti-genic; Enterorelaxant; Enterotoxic; Expectorant; Fungicide; Gastroirritant; Gram(+)-icide MIC = 200-400 [g/ml; Gram(-)-icide MIC = 50-200 [g/ml; Insectifuge; Irritant; Larvicide 10 ppm, 58 ppm; Molluscicide; Myorelaxant; Nematicide MLC = 0.1 mg/ml; Sedative; Sprout-Inhibitor; Tra-cheorelaxant; Trichomonicide LD100 = 25 [g/ml; Urinary-Antiseptic; Vermicide; Vermifuge; LD50 = 980 mg/kg orl rat; LD50 = 1800 (orl mus).

Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae) Indian Saffron, Turmeric

Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae) Indian Saffron, Turmeric

Synonym —

Curcuma domestica Valeton
Medicinal Uses (Turmeric) — Regarded as carminative, choleretic, digestive, stomachic, a cure for liver troubles, taken internally for treating ulcers, or externally as an ointment to heal skin sores. Boiled with milk and sugar, it is used as a cold remedy. Reflecting the doctrine of signatures, orientals use the rhizome for jaundice. Mowrey (1988) says turmeric’s hepatoprotective activity compares well with that of milk thistle and licorice. Chinese consider the root alterative, antipar-asitic, antiperiodic, cholagogue, depurative, hemostat, stomachic, and tonic, and they apply it externally for inflammations, indolent ulcers, and purulent ophthalmia. They use turmeric for abdominal pain, bruises, chest pains, colic, coma, dysmenorrhea, epistaxis, fever, gas, hematuria, hematemesis, hepatitis, sores, and toothache, and poultice in onto itch, ringworm, and sores. They also employ turmeric for arsenic poisoning, hemoptysis, mania, post-partum hemorrhage, and primary syphilis. Ayurvedics use turmeric as alterative, antiperiodic, depurative, stomachic, and tonic, perhaps reflecting the fact that the EO is antiseptic, antacid, aperitif, stomachic, and tonic in small doses, acting as antispasmodic in larger doses. Ayurvedics also prescribe for boils, biliousness, bruises, dyspepsia, dysuria, elephantiasis, inflammations, leucoderma, scabies, smallpox, snakebite, and swellings. In Madagascar, the rhizome is used as an aperient, astringent, carminative, cordial, detergent, diuretic, emmenagogue, maturant, stimulant, and tonic. Yunani prescribe for affections of the liver and jaundice, urinary discharges, scabies, and bruises. Indians even apply the root to leech bites. Simonds (1999) says that, as a popular Indian culinary curry ingredient and cosmetic, turmeric increases the mucus content in gastric juices and is prescribed for stomach disorders. Indian women mix ground turmeric with water to make a paste that they rub on to clear blemishes (Simonds, 1999). Fumes of burning turmeric directed into the nostrils cause a copious mucous discharge and relieve the congestion. Turmeric is given in diarrhea, so difficult to correct in atonic subjects. Turmeric is used in dropsy and malaria. The root, parched, and powdered, is given in bronchitis; the fumes are used during hysteric fits. A paste made of fresh rhizome is applied on the head in cases of vertigo. Turmeric and alum is blown into the ear in chronic otorrhea. The flowers, pasted, are used in ringworm, other parasitic skin diseases, and gonorrhea. Cambodians consider the leaves antipyretic. Powdered turmeric is antioxidant (BGB, BIB, DAD).
I think of turmeric first as a medicine, queen of the natural COX-2-Inhibitors, and secondly as a spice. “Turmeric is a safer, more natural, and less expensive COX-Inhibitor than pharmaceutical COX-Inhibitor drugs” (BGB, quoting me). Like the so-called miracle aspirin of 1999 (Celebrex and Vioxx) and the centenarian aspirin, turmeric relieves pain gently, as its curcumin is a trimillennial COX-2
Inhibitor. Joseph et al. (2002) note that there’s a flip side to the poor availability of turmeric in the stomach. The upside is that a lot of curcumin remains in the GI tract, where it appears to fight colon polyps and possibly colon cancer (JNU). Unlike Celebrex and Vioxx, which inhibit activities of COX-2-enzymes, curcumin prevents their production in the first place (Dr. Andrew Danneberg as quoted in JNU, 2002). Christian Jobin, professor of medicine at UNC, is reportedly checking out curcumin against other abdominal diseases, like colitis and IBD (JNU).
The EO of turmeric has greater antiinflammatory effects than hydrocortisone in test tube arthritis and edema (MPI). Some of the antiinflammatory fractions can reduce histamine significantly, at least in rat epidermis. Mills and Bone (2000) give a brilliant summary, citing in vivo, in vitro, and some clinical evidence regarding turmeric’s antihepatotoxic, anticancer, antiinflammatory, antiox-idant, antiseptic, antitussive, antiviral, cardiovascular, digestive, and hypolipidemic activities (MAB). Turmeric increased glutathione-S-transferase activity >78% in esophagus, liver and stomach, enough to be considered chemopreventive (Khan and Balick, 2001). In a study of clinical applications of ayurvedic herbs, Khan and Balick (2001) note human studies on turmeric for cancer, gastric ulcers, osteoarthritis, and scabies. Turmeric decreases serum lipid peroxides and urinary mutagens (Khan and Balick, 2001). As a COX-2-Inhibitor, curcumin is such a good antirheumatic that whole topics have been written about it (Majeed et al., 1995, Newmark and Schulick, in ed.). Controlled, double-blind research confirms that curcumin taken internally helps arthritis, postoperative inflammation, and edema (swelling or fluid retention). Rheumatoid arthritis patients were given 1200 mg curcumin per day in a double-blind study. All 49 reported improvement in morning stiffness, pain, and physical endurance (Deohdhar et al., 1980). In a cross-over study of 45 osteoar-thritis patients, a combination therapy of curcumin, ashwagandha, boswellia, and zinc produced significant reduction in pain and disability. Forty-five surgical patients between the ages of 15 and 68 were given 400 mg curcumin, 100 mg phenylbutazone, or lactose placebo 3 times daily for 5 days following their operations. Curcumin significantly reduced edema, inflammation, and pain with no side effects (Kulkarni et al., 1991). Curcumin’s ability to reduce edema has been tested repeatedly on rats and mice. Chemicals that cause temporary edema are injected into the surface of their foot pads. Some of the rodents are then treated with curcumin, and the swelling diminishes faster than in those not treated (1997, Majeed et al., 1995).
The COX-2-Inhibitory activity of curcumin has led some to study turmeric for Alzheimer’s. Science News picked up on this, too (Travis, 2001), noting that India has one of the lowest Alzheimer’s rates in the world (and one of the highest intakes of curry and curcumin, where turmeric is native). In mice, dietary curcumin reduced inflammation and free radical damage in the mice brains (Travis, 2001). Lim et al. (2001) note that inflammation in Alzheimer’s patients is characterized by increased cytokines and activated microglia. Epidemiology suggests reduced AD risk with long-term use of NSAIDs. Curcumin is a potent polyphenolic antioxidant. Lim et al. tested low (160 ppm) and high (5000 ppm) doses curcumin for inflammation, oxidative damage, and plaque pathology in rats. Both significantly lowered oxidized proteins and interleukin-1beta, a proinflammatory cytokine elevated in the mice brains. With low but not high dose, insoluble beta-amyloid (Abeta), soluble Abeta, and plaque burden were significantly decreased (43-50%). However, levels of amyloid precursor (APP) in the membrane fraction were not reduced. Microgliosis was also suppressed in neuronal layers, but not adjacent to plaques. In view of efficacy and apparent low toxicity, turmeric shows promise for preventing Alzheimer’s (X11606625).
Curcumin may be every bit as promising as the synthetic COX-2-Inhibitors, alleviating arthritis, gout, inflammation, and rheumatism, and possibly preventing Alzheimer’s and cancer. Boik (2001) certainly praises curcumin, if not the mother turmeric, as a cancer preventive. Nearly 20 in vitro studies show that curcumin inhibits proliferation of several cancer cell lines, at levels of some 5.2-27 | M. Some found it prevented angiogenesis and decreased invasiveness. Boik reports three animal studies of curcumin, wherein it prolonged life span of cancerous rodents, inhibited tumor growth, or inhibited metastasis. Curcumin is a stronger antioxidant than vitamin E at preventing lipid peroxidation in vitro. We have one phytochemical with more than two dozen different activities
that could reduce the incidence of cancer, and we have at least half a dozen other anticancer chemicals doing many of the same things in slightly different levels. I presume that is what emboldens Boik to predict synergies among these food farmaceuticals. Boldly, he calculates some tentative human dosages as 0.36-3.2 g/day (as scaled from animal antitumor studies), 0.23-3.2 g/day (as scaled from animal antiinflammatory studies, leading to a target dose of 360-8700 mg/day curcumin). Then even more speculatively, he suggests that synergies with other phytochemicals may reduce that minimum antitumor dose to 24-580 mg curcumin/day, paralleling his minimum anticancer dosage of 100 mg for genistein (e.g., in beans) and apigenin (e.g., in celery), 170 mg for luteolin, and 250 mg quercetin through similar calculations. If you find this paragraph rough sledding, may I refer you to Boik’s very interesting topic (BO2).
In turmeric, we note another case of opposing medicinal compounds, curcumin increasing bile secretion, bis-desmethoxycurcumin decreasing it. Can the homeostatic body select the activity it needs? I think so. Rinzler (1990) adds notes that turmeric is choleretic, but many herbs, if not all, contain choleretics. Choleretics stimulate the production of bile, the bitter substance that emulsifies fats in the duodenum, stimulates peristalsis, thereby encouraging movement of food along the GI tract. Turmeric is also a cholagogue, which stimulates the bile duct and gallbladder to discharge bile, in the process aiding the excretion of cholesterol. While useful in moderation in healthy people, choleretics and cholagogues may be contraindicated in patients with gallbladder or liver diseases. In Medicinal Plants of India (MPI), curcumin is noted to stimulate the musculature of the gall bladder, unlike other bile stimulants in use. Curcumin seems to combine the choleretic and hydro-cholagogic activities with antisepsis, perhaps making it ideal for biliary and gallbladder problems suspected to have been caused by Staphylococcus (MPI). Further, sodium curcuminate is an active choleretic, inducing nearly 100% increase in bile production of anesthetized dogs. Sodium cur-cuminate acts as a hydrocholagogue. Increased bile salt excretions seems to speak for curcumin in digestive disorders. EO and some of its distillates are also choleretic but less so.
Asai and Miyazawa (2001) hint that dietary curcuminoids might prevent accumulation of lipids in the liver and epididymal adipose tissues. Reporting the antioxidative, anticarcinogenic, and hypocholesterolemic activities of curcumin and other curcuminoids, they also note that dietary curcuminoids have lipid-lowering potency in vivo, probably due to alterations in fatty acid metabolism.
Negi et al. (1999) note that after curcumin is produced industrially from turmeric oleoresin, the mother liquor contains ca. 40% oil. Fractions from the oil were tested for antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus, Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. Fraction II (5% ethyl acetate in hexane) was most active. ar-Turmerone, turmerone, and curlone were major constituents of such fractions (X10552805). Alcoholic extracts of the rhizome were active against Entameba histolytica. Sharma et al. (2000) showed that, though bactericidal on their own, extracts of black pepper, capsicum, and turmeric partially protected Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus pumilus, and Escherichia from radiation, probably protecting their DNA. Chile was strongest. Curcumin and piperine were also concluded to be radioprotective.
In my Peruvian pharmacy ecotours, I have long maintained that I think as much of the inexpensive Peruvian antiAIDS cocktail (turmeric, cat’s claw, jergon sacha) as I do of the $18,000 antiAIDS cocktail back in the States. I doubt that either will eradicate the virus. But I’ll wager the naturals will have fewer side effects, especially food farmaceuticals like turmeric. Certainly turmeric has anti-HIV activity. Infection with HIV involves a complicated command system which results in activation or inactivation. One critical part of that system is the long terminal repeat (LTR). Drugs that interfere with LTP can delay infection and slow progression. Curcumin inhibits activation of LTR and decreases HIV replication (Majeed et al., 1995). In AIDS and Complementary & Alternative Medicine, Standish et al. (2002) note that, in vitro, turmeric inhibits HIV integrase and HIV-1 LTR-directed transcription at fractional micromolar concentrations. Turmeric modestly inhibits HIV-1 and -2 proteases. It also inhibits nuclear factor kappa B, which regulates viral
transcription. Although not tested by the NCI, curcumin is popular among HIV-positive CAM users. In one positive study reported by Standish et al., 18 HIV patients with CD4 T-cell counts 5 to 615 found significant increases in CD4 T-cell counts with curcumin, cf controls. Less positively, curcumin at neither 2700 mg/day nor 4800 mg/day had any effect on CD4 T-cell count or viral load. I think curried hyssop tea, sweetened with licorice, and with floating hypericum flowers, might be an even better, though perhaps equally futile, food farmacy approach. See also licorice (Standish et al., 2002).
Cheng et al. (2001) demonstrated that curcumin is not toxic in oral human doses up to 8000 mg/day for 3 months. Their results also suggest a biologic effect of curcumin in the chemoprevention of cancer, especially bladder cancer, Bowen’s disease, cervical cancer, leukoplakia, stomach cancer, and uterine cancer (uterine cervical intraepithelial neoplasm). Urinary excretion of curcumin was not detectable. Serum concentrations of curcumin usually peaked 1-2 hr after intake, gradually declining within 12 hr. The average peak serum concentrations after taking 4000 mg, 6000 mg, and 8000 mg of curcumin were ca. 0.5 \xM, 0.6 \xM, and 1.8 \xM respectively (Cheng et al., 2001).
Indications (Turmeric) — Abscess (1; FNF; TRA); Adenoma (1; X7954412); Adenosis (1; DAD; JLH; X7954412);); Allergy (1; WAM); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF); Amenorrhea (1; BGB; PH2; WHO); Anorexia (2; BGB; BRU; PHR; PH2); Arthrosis (1; KAP; MAB; WAM; WHO); Asthma (1; MAB; WHO); Atherosclerosis (1; MAB; SKY); Athlete’s Foot (1; FNF); Bacillus (1;
X10552805); Bacteria (1; FNF; X10552805); Bite (f; BIB; PH2); Bleeding (f; PED; PH2); Boil (1; DAD; WHO); Bowen’s Disease (1; X11712783); Bronchosis (f; BIB; PH2); Bruise (f; DAV;
PED; PH2; WHO); Bursitis (1; SKY); Cancer (1; FNF; MAB); Cancer, abdomen (1; COX; FNF; JLH); Cancer, bladder (1; X11712783); Cancer, breast (1; COX; FNF; MAB); Cancer, cervix (1; X11712783); Cancer, colon (1; COX; FNF; JLH; JNU); Cancer, duodenum (1; X7954412); Cancer, esophagus (1; JAC7:405); Cancer, joint (1; JLH; MAB); Cancer, liver (1; JAC7:405); Cancer, mouth (1; COX; FNF; JLH); Cancer, nose (1; COX; FNF; JLH); Cancer, sinew (1; COX; FNF; JLH); Cancer, skin (1; X7954412); Cancer, stomach (1; JAC7:405); Cancer, uterus (1; X11712783); Cardiopathy (1; AKT; MAB); Cataract (1; MAB); Catarrh (f; UPW); Chest Ache (f; PH2); Childbirth (f; DAD); Cholecystosis (2; APA; PHR); Circulosis (f; BOW); Cold (f; KAP; PH2); Colic (f; APA; PED; PH2); Coma (f; DAD); Congestion (f; APA; BIB); Conjunctivosis (f; KAB; MAB; PH2; SUW); Constipation (f; PH2); Coryza (f; KAB); Cramp (1; AKT; BIB; DAD); Cystosis (f; PH2); Dermatosis (1; AKT; MAB; PH2; SUW; WHO; WOI); Diabetes (f; BOW); Diarrhea (1;
APA; WHO); Dropsy (f; DAD); Duodenosis (1; X7954412); Dusgeusia (f; KAB); Dysmenorrhea (1; AKT; APA; PED; WHO); Dyspepsia (2; KOM; MAB; PH2; WHO); Dysuria (f; DAD); Eczema (1; BGB; KAP; MAB); Edema (1; KAP; PH2); Elephantiasis (f; DAD); Enterosis (1; AKT; DAD; PH2; WHO); Epilepsy (f; WHO); Epistaxis (f; DAD; PH2); Esophagosis (1; JAC7:405); Fever (1; APA; BIB; COX); Fibrosis (1; BGB; MAB); Fungus (1; BIB; FNF; PH2); Gallstone (1; APA; MAB); Gas (1; APA; PH2); Gastrosis (f; PH2); Gonorrhea (f; BIB; KAB); Gray Hair (f; HAD); Fungus (1; FNF; LIB); Headache (f; PH2); Hematemesis (f; DAD; PH2); Hematuria (f; DAD);
Hemorrhoid (f; MAB); Hepatosis (2; FNF; MAB; PED; PHR; PH2; TRA); High Blood Pressure
(1; KAP); High Cholesterol (1; AKT; APA; MAB; TRA); High Triglycerides (1; MAB; TRA); Hyperlipidemia (1; MAB); Hysteria (f; DAD); IBS (1; PED); Immunodepression (1; FNF); Infection (2; FNF; MAB; MPI; PH2); Inflammation (1; FNF; PHR; PH2; WAM; WHO); Itch (f; APA; KAP; PH2); Jaundice (1; MAB; TRA); Laryngosis (1; BIB; COX); Leprosy (f; PH2); Leukemia (1; AKT); Leishmannia (1; X10865470); Leukoderma (f; DAD); Leukoplakia (1; X11712783); Lymphoma (1; BIB; COX; FNF); Malaria (f; KAP; PH2); Mania (f; DAD); Morning Sickness (1; MAB); Mucososis (f; PH2); Mycosis (1; FNF; PH2; X8824742); Nematode (1; X8221978); Nephrosis (1; AKT; PH2); Nervousness (1; FNF); Ophthalmia (1; AKT; DAD; PH2); Osteoarthrosis (1; MAB); Ozena (f; KAB); Pain (1; BIB; COX; FNF; WHO); Parasite (f; BIB; DAD; KAP; LIB); Polyp (1; COX; JLH; JNU); Psoriasis (1; FNF; MAB); Puerperium (f; MAB); Radiation (1; AKT); Restenosis (1; MAB); Rheumatism (1; BIB; COX; SKY); Rhinosis (1; COX; JLH); Ringworm (f; APA; BIB;
KAP; PH2); Scabies (2; BGB); Smallpox (f; DAD); Sore (f; PH2); Sore Throat (f; PH2); Sprain
(1; MAB; SUW); Staphylococcus (1; MPI; UPW); Stone (1; HHB; MAB); Stroke (f; BOW; PH2); Swelling (1; AKT; COX; PH2); Syphilis (f; DAD); Trauma (f; AKT); Ulcer (1; BIB; COX; FNF;
PED; WHO); Uveosis (2; AKT); VD (f; BIB; DAD); Vertigo (f; BIB; DAD); Vomiting (f; PH2);
Wart (f; JLH); Water Retention (1; FNF); Whitlow (f; JLH); Worm (1; X8221978); Wound (1; APA; BGB; PH2; SUW; WAM); Yeast (1; PED).

Turmeric for cancer:

• AntiEBV: curcumin
• AntiHIV: caffeic-acid; curcumin
• AntiX-Radiation: curdione
• Antiadenomacarcinogenic: curcumin
• Antiaflatoxin: curcumin
• Antiaggregant: caffeic-acid; curcumin; eugenol; salicylates
• Antiangiogenic: bis-desmethoxycurcumin; curcumin; demethoxycurcumin
• Antiarachidonate: curcumin; eugenol
• Anticancer: alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; caffeic-acid; camphor; cinnamic-acid; curcu-menol; curcumin; curcuminoids; eugenol; limonene; linalool; p-coumaric-acid; terpineol; vanillic-acid
• Anticarcinogenic: caffeic-acid
• Antihepatotoxic: caffeic-acid; p-coumaric-acid; protocatechuic-acid
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-curcumene; alpha-pinene; ar-turmerone; azulene; beta-pinene; bis-(4-hydroxy-cinnamoyl)-methane; bis-desmethoxycurcumin; borneol; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; cinnamic-acid; curcumin; curcuminoids; demethoxycurcumin; eugenol; feruloyl-4-hydroxycinnamoyl-methane; germacrone; protocatechuic-acid; salicylates; tetrahydrocurcumin; triethylcurcumin; vanillic-acid
• Antileukemic: 2-hydroxy-methyl-anthraquinone; curcumin
• Antileukotriene: caffeic-acid; curcumin; curcuminoids
• Antilymphomic: curcumin
• Antimelanomic: curcumin
• Antimetastatic: curcumin
• Antimutagenic: caffeic-acid; cinnamic-acid; curcumin; eugenol; limonene; protocate-chuic-acid
• Antinitrosaminic: caffeic-acid; curcumin; p-coumaric-acid
• Antioxidant: caffeic-acid; camphene; curcumin; eugenol; gamma-terpinene; p-coumaric-acid; protocatechuic-acid; tetrahydrocurcumin; turmerin; turmeronol-a; turmeronol-b; vanillic-acid
• Antiperoxidant: caffeic-acid; curcumin; p-coumaric-acid; protocatechuic-acid
• Antiproliferant: terpineol
• Antiprostaglandin: caffeic-acid; curcumin; curcuminoids; eugenol
• Antisarcomic: curcumol; curdione
• Antistress: germacrone
• Antithromboxane: curcumin; eugenol
• Antitumor: alpha-curcumene; ar-turmerone; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; curcumin; cur-dione; eugenol; limonene; p-coumaric-acid; vanillic-acid
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; beta-bisabolene; caffeic-acid; curcumin; limonene; linalool; p-cymene; protocatechuic-acid
• Apoptotic: curcumin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: curcumin; eugenol; ar-turmerone; beta-turmerone
• Cytochrome-p450-Inducer: 1,8-cineole
• Cytoprotective: caffeic-acid
• Cytotoxic: 2-hydroxy-methyl-anthraquinone; caffeic-acid; curcumin; curcuminoids; di-p-coumaroyl-methane; diferuloyl-methane; eugenol; feruloyl-p-coumaroyl-methane; p-coumaric-acid
• Fibrinolytic: curcumin
• Hepatoprotective: borneol; caffeic-acid; curcumin; di-p-coumaroyl-methane; eugenol; p-coumaroyl-feruloyl-methane
• Hepatotonic: 1,8-cineole; turmerone
• Immunostimulant: caffeic-acid; curcumin; protocatechuic-acid; ukonan-a
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: caffeic-acid; cinnamic-acid; p-coumaric-acid
• Ornithine-Decarboxylase-Inhibitor: caffeic-acid; curcumin; limonene
• Prostaglandigenic: caffeic-acid; p-coumaric-acid; protocatechuic-acid
• Protease-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Protein-Kinase-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Sunscreen: caffeic-acid
Turmeric for dyspepsia:
• Analgesic: borneol; caffeic-acid; camphor; eugenol; germacrone; p-cymene
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; camphor; cinnamic-acid; eugenol; guaiacol; linalool
• Antiemetic: camphor
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-curcumene; alpha-pinene; ar-turmerone; azulene; beta-pinene; bis-(4-hydroxy-cinnamoyl)-methane; bis-desmethoxycurcumin; borneol; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; cinnamic-acid; curcumin; curcuminoids; demethoxycurcumin; eugenol; feruloyl-4-hydroxycinnamoyl-methane; germacrone; protocatechuic-acid; salicylates; tetrahydrocurcumin; triethylcurcumin; vanillic-acid
• Antioxidant: caffeic-acid; camphene; curcumin; eugenol; gamma-terpinene; p-coumaric-acid; protocatechuic-acid; tetrahydrocurcumin; turmerin; turmeronol-a; turmeronol-b; vanillic-acid
• Antistress: germacrone
• Antiulcer: azulene; beta-bisabolene; beta-sesquiphellandrene; caffeic-acid; curcumin; eugenol; germacrone; zingiberene
• Carminative: camphor; eugenol; zingiberene
• Secretagogue: 1,8-cineole; protocatechuic-acid
• Sedative: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; borneol; caffeic-acid; caryophyl-lene; eugenol; isoborneol; limonene; linalool; p-cymene
• Tranquilizer: alpha-pinene

Turmeric for infection:

• Analgesic: borneol; caffeic-acid; camphor; eugenol; germacrone; p-cymene
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; camphor; cinnamic-acid; eugenol; guaiacol; linalool
• Antibacterial: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; azulene; caffeic-acid; caryo-phyllene; cinnamic-acid; curcumin; eugenol; guaiacol; limonene; linalool; o-coumaric-acid; p-coumaric-acid; p-cymene; protocatechuic-acid; terpineol; vanillic-acid
• Antiedemic: caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; curcumin; eugenol; germacrone
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-curcumene; alpha-pinene; ar-turmerone; azulene; beta-pinene; bis-(4-hydroxy-cinnamoyl)-methane; bis-desmethoxycurcumin; borneol; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; cinnamic-acid; curcumin; curcuminoids; demethoxycurcumin; eugenol; feruloyl-4-hydroxycinnamoyl-methane; germacrone; protocatechuic-acid; salicylates; tetrahydrocurcumin; triethylcurcumin; vanillic-acid
• Antiseptic: 1,8-cineole; alpha-terpineol; azulene; beta-pinene; caffeic-acid; camphor; eugenol; guaiacol; limonene; linalool; terpineol
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; beta-bisabolene; caffeic-acid; curcumin; limonene; linalool; p-cymene; protocatechuic-acid
• COX-2-Inhibitor: curcumin; eugenol; ar-turmerone; beta-turmerone
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Fungicide: 1,8-cineole; alpha-phellandrene; caffeic-acid; camphor; caprylic-acid; caryo-phyllene; cinnamic-acid; curcumin; eugenol; linalool; o-coumaric-acid; p-coumaric-acid; p-cymene; p-methoxy-cinnamic-acid; protocatechuic-acid; terpinolene
• Fungistat: limonene
• Immunostimulant: caffeic-acid; curcumin; protocatechuic-acid; ukonan-a
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: caffeic-acid; cinnamic-acid; p-coumaric-acid

Other Uses (Turmeric) —

Cheaper and stronger, and probably healthier gram for gram than the world’s most expensive saffron, turmeric is sometimes called Indian Saffron. Bown (2001) properly advises that, because of strong flavor, one might not wish to substitute turmeric for annatto or saffron. It can be used in such things as piccalilli (somewhere between a chutney and a pickle), popular in the U.K., especially at Christmas when eaten with ham and cold turkey. The word piccalilli appears to date from the 18th century, probably a blend of pickle and chilli, though recipes now use ginger and mustard rather than chilli as the hot component. Piccalilli is bright yellow in color due to the high turmeric content (Bown, 2001). Dried rhizomes are used as spice, whole or ground, to flavor meat and egg dishes, and to flavor and/or color pickles, relishes, prepared mustard, butter and cheese; an indispensable constituent of curry powder. Indian chefs agree that uncooked turmeric is too earthy to serve. They often sizzle their powdered turmeric in hot oil (AAR). Mine almost tastes like ginseng, even when cooked. Moroccans combine saffron and turmeric in their “harira soup,” consumed after completion of the Ramadan fast. Mixed with coconut oil, turmeric imparts a special flavor to seafoods and soups (AAR). In Java, young rhizomes and shoots are also eaten in lablab (Ochse, 1931). In India they are eaten raw. Leaves, wrapped around fish, impart their own flavor (FAC). In West Sumatra, leaves are essential in “Rendang,” a traditional buffalo dish (FAC). Turmeric provides a natural dye to color cloth, leather, silk, palm fiber, wool, and cotton. Sudanese use it as a cosmetic, smearing a turmeric ointment around their eyes (UPW). Anecdotally, I have learned of one dowager who accidentally dyed her gray hair blonde while killing lice with a neem/turmeric formula I had recited from Mills and Bone (2000). A paste with turmeric and neem cured 97% of 814 scabies patients within 3-15 days of treatment. “No toxic or adverse reactions were observed” (MAB). As a chemical indicator turmeric changes color in alkaline and acid substrates. Turmeric paper, prepared by soaking unglazed white paper in the tincture and then dried, is used as a test for alkaloids and boric acid. Turmeric rhizomes yield 2-6% orange-yellow EO (curcumin, upon oxidation becomes vanillin), used in flavoring spice products and in perfumery (BIB, DAD).
Here are some food farmacy formulae that may be of interest:

Gobo Gumbo —

Burdock, heavy with turmeric as possible, heavily spiced with black pepper for its piperine (can increase absorption of curcumin up to twentyfold), plus a dash of grapefruit juice. Arthritis sufferers might wish to consider adding some or all of the following antiarthritic foods and spices: black cumin; cayenne (the hotter the pepper, the less the pain; rich also in salicylates), evening primrose (crushed seed or bran flakes), fenugreek (distasteful to some), garlic, ginger, job’s tear (Coix, a weed in the tropics), licorice (distasteful to some), nettleleaf (self-flagellating as well), onion (leave the skin on), oregano, purslane, rosemary, sage, savory, and/or thyme. Several other spices are also well endowed with COX-2-Inhibitors.

High Colonic Tea —

In addition to getting my 25-35 g fiber a day, still firmly believing that fiber prevents colorectal cancer, I have fashioned a new tea embracing some of the better
COX-2-Inhibiting spices, with which I further improve the flavor of my COX-2-Inhibiting Green Tea. To the usual cup of tea, I add a small dash each of up to seven of the herbs high in COX-2-Inhibitors, chamomile, clove, holy basil, ginger, lavender, marjoram, oregano, rosemary, sage, and turmeric.
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Turmeric) —

Propagated vegetatively by fingers or rhizomes with one or two buds. Older planting stock roots are said to yield earlier. Turmeric, rarely grown in pure stands, is usually rotated with either ragi (Eleusine coracana Gaertn.), paddy (Oryza sativa L.), or sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.), or may be mixed with castorbeans, corn, eggplants, french beans, ragi, sun hemp, or tomatoes. West Africa, turmeric is cultivated as a dye plant along with ginger in the forest (DAD). Soil should be plowed to 30 cm deep and liberally manured with potash and organic manures. Ochse especially recommend stable dung. Manure should be plowed into the soil three or four times. Ridges 22.5-25 cm high and 45-55 cm broad are made with furrows between the rows for irrigation. Sets or fingers of the previous crop are planted during April to August, 7.5 cm deep and 30-45 cm apart in rows, at rate of 560-725 kg/ha. Plants spaced 15 cm by 15 cm yield significantly more rhizomes than plants placed 30 cm by 30 cm or more. Periodic weeding or hoeing may be necessary. Purseglove et al. (1981) suggest 2,4-D as a preemergent herbicide, hinting that simazine might also be effective. Animal manures have doubled yields. In India, 25 MT farmyard manure/ha has been recommended with 50 kg each N, P2O5, and K2O. Rhizomes should be ready to harvest in 9-10 months, when lower leaves turn yellow. They are carefully dug with picks (to avoid bruising), then scalded with hot water to gelatinize the starch and to prevent sprouting and molding, then sun dried. The dried rhizome is rubbed on a rough surface or trampled to remove the outer skin and give an attractive color and polish. Sprinkling water during polishing diffuses the color throughout the rhizome. In India, rain fed yields of 7-9 MT/ha are reported, 17-22 irrigated.

Chemistry (Turmeric) —

The Wealth of India indicates 50 IU vitamin A/100 g. See Purseglove et al. (1981) for striking differences in the chemicals found in the EOs of C. aromatica, C. domestica, C. xanthorrhiza, and C. zedoaria. Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in turmeric. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
AR-Turmerone — Antihemorrhagic; Antiinflammatory; Antilymphocytic; AntiNKC; Antiophidic; Antiproliferative; Antitumor; Insectifuge.
Curcumin — See also Costus speciosus.
Curcumol — See also Curcuma zedoaria.
Curdione — See also Curcuma zedoaria.
Turmerin — Antimutagenic; Antioxidant; DNA-Protectant.
Turmerone — Choleretic; Hepatotonic; Insectifuge.
Zingiberene — See also Curcuma zedoaria.

Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) Temu Lawak

Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) Temu Lawak
Very closely related to zedoary. Important in Indonesian Jamu.

Medicinal Uses (Temu Lawak) —

In Singapore as “Ubat jamu” and “Ubat maaju,” it is used for many things, including indigestion. In Perak, it is used in infusion for dyspepsia and rheumatism. It is used to bring on the period in amenorrhea and as a puerpereal tonic. It is also pasted over the body following childbirth. In southeast Asia, it has a deserved reputation as a choleretic and cholagogue (BRU). Because of its reputation for the liver in the Dutch Indies, it has gained a reputation in Holland for gallstones (IHB).
Yasni et al. (1994) identified the major component (approx. 65%) of the EO as alpha-curcumene. Rats fed EO or hexane-soluble fraction had lower hepatic fatty acid synthase activity. Alpha-curcumene is one of the active principles exerting triglyceride-lowering activity in temu lawak (X8157222). Mata et al. (2001) found xanthorrhizol modestly active against gram(+) and gram(-) bacteria, including Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecum, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Staphylo-coccus aureus, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococ-cus. It was scarcely active against Candida albicans (MIC = 128 [g/ml). At 128 and 64 [g/ml, it inhibited DNA and RNA synthesis and protein synthesis. Hwang et al. (2000) compared the antibacterial activity of xanthorrhizol with chlorhexidine against oral microorganisms in comparison. Xanthorrhizol has shown bactericidal activity against Streptococcus, making it potentially useful at preventing caries (X10844172). Campos et al. (2000) described the calcium-channel-blocking, endothelium-independent relaxation, and vasorelaxing activities of xanthorrhizol at doses of 1-100 [g/ml. Xanthorrhizol is assuming new importance as a COX-2-Inhibitor.
Patel and Srinivasan (1985) noted that dietary curcumin significantly increased lipase, maltase, and sucrase activities. Lin et al. (1995) found that extracts reduced serum transaminase levels induced by hepatotoxins. Extracts reduced liver damage 24 hr after ipr administration of hepato-toxins. The authors conclude that temu lawak could be useful in treating liver injuries and has promise as a broad spectrum hepatoprotective agent (X8571920).

Indications (Temu Lawak)

— Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF; JAD); Amenorrhea (f; IHB); Anorexia (2; PHR; PH2); Arthrosis (1; COX; FNF; JAD); Bacillus (1; JNP64:911); Bacteria (1; X10844172); Cancer (1; COX; FNF); Candida (1; JNP64:911); Cardiopathy (1; JNP64:911); Caries (1; X10844172); Childbirth (f; IHB); Cholecystosis (2; PHR; PH2); Dyspepsia (2; FNF; KOM; PH2); Enterococcus (1; JNP64:911); Enterosis (f; BRU); Escherichia (1; JNP64:911); Fullness (f; PH2); Fungus (1; FNF; JNP64:911); Gallstone (f; IHB); Gas (1; PH2); Gastrosis (1; BRU); Hepatosis (2; HHB; IHB; PHR; PH2); High Triglycerides (1; X8157222); Infection (1; X10844172); Inflammation (1; COX; FNF); Jaundice (f; HHB); Klebsiella (1; JNP64:911); Mycosis (1; JNP64:911); Pain (1; COX; FNF) Rheumatism (1; COX; FNF; IHB); Stone (f; IHB; HHB); Staphylococcus (1;
JNP64:911); Streptococcus (1; PM66:196).

Temu Lawak for cardiopathy:

• Antiaggregant: curcumin
• Antiatherosclerotic: curcumin
• Antiedemic: curcumin
• Antiischemic: curcumin
• Antioxidant: curcumin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: curcumin; turmerone; xanthorrhizol
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Hypocholesterolemic: curcumin
• Hypotensive: curcumin
• Sedative: borneol

Temu Lawak for hepatosis:

• AntiEBV: curcumin
• Antiedemic: curcumin
• Antihepatosis: curcumin
• Antiinflammatory: borneol; curcumin; curcuminoids
• Antileukotriene: curcumin; curcuminoids
• Antioxidant: curcumin
• Antiperoxidant: curcumin
• Antiprostaglandin: curcumin; curcuminoids
• Antiviral: ar-curcumene; curcumin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: curcumin; turmerone; xanthorrhizol
• Cholagogue: curcumin; curcuminoids
• Choleretic: curcumin; turmerone
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Detoxicant: curcumin
• Hepatoprotective: borneol; curcumin
• Hepatotonic: turmerone
• Immunostimulant: curcumin

Temu Lawak for infection:

• Analgesic: borneol
• Antibacterial: curcumin
• Antiedemic: curcumin
• Antiinflammatory: borneol; curcumin; curcuminoids
• Antiviral: ar-curcumene; curcumin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: curcumin; turmerone; xanthorrhizol
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Fungicide: alpha-phellandrene; curcumin
• Immunostimulant: curcumin

Other Uses (Temu Lawak) —

Another spicy ginger relative, temu lawak is also a source of starch, used in making oriental porridges or puddings. Roots like those of turmeric and zedoary are yellow to orange, especially the older roots. The starch is rendered grating the rhizome and kneading the gratings in water above a sieve, repeating for several days. A beverage is made by boiling the rhizomes in water and sweetening. Hearts of the stem and tips of the rhizomes are eaten raw. Cooked inflorescences are served with rice (FAC). The plant is also used in local dyes (IHB).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Temu Lawak) —

Botanically closely related to turmeric, temu lawak is cultivated in Indonesia, where it, like many members of the ginger family, is important in Jamu, the traditional Indonesian medicine. Probably treated and cultivated like other members of the ginger family. The rhizome is cut after harvest (BRU).

Chemistry (Temu Lawak) —

Bruneton (1999) notes that the plant is rich in sesquiterpenes, like bisacumol, bisacurol, bisacurone, ar-curcumene, turmerones, (R)-(+)-xanthorrhizol, and zingib-erene. Curcuminoids (1-2%) include curcumin and is a monodemethoxylated derivative as well as di-, hexa-, and octahydrogenated derivatives (BRU). Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in temu lawak. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.

Alpha-Curcumene —

Antiinflammatory; Antitumor; Hypotriglyceridemic.Ar-Curcumene — Antirhinoviral IC50 = 1750; Antiulcer IC45 = 100 mg/kg; Antiviral IC50 = 1750; Stomachic.

Curcumin —

See also Costus speciosus. Curcuminoids — See also Costus speciosus. Turmerone — See also Curcuma longa.
Xanthorrhizol — Antibacterial; Antiseptic; Artemicide; Bacillicide MIC = 16 ng/ml; Calcium-Channel-Blocker; Candidicide MIC = 69 ng/ml; Cytotoxic EC50 = 4.9 ^g/ml; Fungicide MIC = 69 ng/ml; Gram(+)-icide MIC = 16-32 ng/ml; Gram(-)-icide MIC = 16-32 ng/ml; Myorelaxant; Uterorelaxant; Vasorelaxant.
Zingiberene — Antirhinoviral; Antiulcer IC54 = 100 mg/kg; Carminative; Insecticide.

Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe (Zingiberaceae) Kua, Zedoary

Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe (Zingiberaceae) Kua, Zedoary

Synonym —

Amomum zedoaria Christm.
Medicinal Uses (Zedoary) — Considered antipyretic, aphrodisiac, aromatic, carminative, demulcent, expectorant, stomachic, stimulant, and tonic. Fresh rhizomes have diuretic properties and are used in checking leucorrhea and gonorrheal discharges and for purifying the blood. Rhizomes are simply chewed to alleviate cough (DEP). A decoction of the rhizome administered along with long pepper, cinnamon, and honey is said to be beneficial for colds, fevers, bronchitis, and coughs. Mixed with black pepper, licorice, and sugar, it is used for bronchitis and cough (DEP). Rhizomes are an important ingredient of preserves given as a tonic to women after childbirth. Externally, the rhizome is applied as a paste mixed with alum, to sprains and bruises. Asian Indians apply the root to dermatitis, sprains, ulcer, and wounds (UPW). Juice of leaves is given for dropsy (DEP, WOI). Zedoary is a food, so there’s little cause for concern with rational use. Women who experience a heavy menstrual flow should avoid taking large dosages. Extremely large amounts of curcuminoids, more than you are liable to ingest, might cause ulcers or cancer, or might reduce the number of red and white corpuscles in the blood ( 2000).
Containing up to 0.1% curcumin, zedoary, like turmeric and ginger, may be viewed as a COX-2-Inhibitor, of potential use in alzheimer’s, arthritis, and cancer. Yoshioka et al. (1998) demonstrated the analgesic, antiedemic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and radical-scavenging potency of dehydrocur-dione, the major component of zedoary. Curcumol and curdione are regarded in the Orient as effective anticancer compounds, especially for cervical cancer and lymphosarcoma. Polysaccharide fractions decrease tumor sizes in mice and prevent chromosomal mutation. One fraction, at 6.25 mg/kg/day inhibited solid tumor growth 50% (Kim et al., 2000, X10987135). Used with success in Chinese studies of cervical cancer and in improving the efficacy of chemotherapy and radiation (Bown, 2001).
Considering CAM HIV treatments, Standish et al. (2002) discuss ACA (also called Perthon), a westernized version of an Asian combo of eleven herbs including some spices discussed in this topic, cinnamon, cloves, myrrh, Sumatra benzoin, and zedoary. The combo received an investigational new drug (IND) status from the FDA in 1994 based on preliminary Australian-collected data. Fifteen HIV-positives treated for up to 2 years significantly improved re body weight and CD4+/CD8+ ratios (Standish et al., 2002).
Indications (Zedoary) — Adenosis (f; DAA; KAB); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF; JAD); Anorexia (f; KAB; PH2); Arthrosis (1; COX; FNF; JAD); Asthma (f; KAB; PH2); Bronchosis (f; DEP; KAB; KAP; PH2); Bruise (f; DEP; KAB; KAP; SUW); Cancer (1; DAA; FNF); Cancer, cervix (1; FNF; JAD; PH2); Cancer, colon (1; COX; FNF; JLH; PH2); Cancer, liver (1; COX; FNF; JLH; PH2); Cancer, uterus (1; DAA; FNF); Cardiopathy (1; X10973625); Cervicosis (1; BOW); Childbirth (f; DEP; KAB); Cold (1; DEP; FNF; SUW; WOI); Colic (f; HDR); Convulsion (f; KAB); Cough (f; KAP); Cramp (1; PH2);
Debility (f; PH2); Dermatosis (f; DEP); Dropsy (f; KAB; UPW); Dyspepsia (f; BOW; PH2); Enterosis
(f; PH2); Epilepsy (f; KAB); Fever (f; DEP; KAB); Furuncle (f; KAB); Gas (1; FNF; KAP; WOI); Gastrosis (f; PH2); Gonorrhea (f; KAB; KAP); Halitosis (f; KAB); Hematoma (f; DAA); Hemorrhoid (f; KAB); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Inflammation (1; COX; FNF; KAB); Jaundice (f; SKJ); Leukoderma (f; PH2); Leukorrhea (f; KAB; KAP); Lymphadenosis (f; KAB); Lymphagosis (f; KAP); Lymphosarcoma (1; DAA; FNF); Malaise (f; KAB); Nausea (f; BOW); Neurosis (f; PH2); Pain (1; COX; DEP; FNF; SUW); Rheumatism (1; COX; FNF); Sore Throat (f; DEP; KAP); Splenosis (f; KAB); Sprain (f; DEP;
KAB; KAP); Toothache (f; KAB); Tuberculosis (f; PH2); Vertigo (f; KAB); Wound (f; KAB; PH2).
Zedoary for Alzheimer’s:
• Antiacetylcholinesterase: 1,8-cineole
• Antiaggregant: curcumin
• Antiatherosclerotic: curcumin
• Anticholinesterase: 1,8-cineole
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-pinene; bis-desmethoxycurcumin; curcumin
• Antiischemic: curcumin
• Antileukotriene: curcumin
• Antioxidant: curcumin
• Antiperoxidant: curcumin
• Antiprostaglandin: curcumin
• CNS-Stimulant: 1,8-cineole
• COX-2-Inhibitor: curcumin; beta-turmerone; ar-turmerone
• Chelator: curcumin
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Metal-Chelator: curcumin

Zedoary for rheumatism:

• 12-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole
• Antiarthritic: curcumin
• Antiedemic: curcumin
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-pinene; bis-desmethoxycurcumin; curcumin
• Antiprostaglandin: curcumin
• Antispasmodic: 1,8-cineole; curcumin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: curcumin; beta-turmerone; ar-turmerone
• Counterirritant: 1,8-cineole
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: curcumin
• Myorelaxant: 1,8-cineole

Other Uses (Zedoary) —

Primarily cultivated for the starchy tubers that provide the Shoti Starch of commerce. It is used as a substitute for arrowroot and barley and is highly regarded as a diet food for infants and convalescents. Nearly all the starch is amylose and gives a highly viscous paste with water. A red powder, “Abir,” is prepared from powdered rhizomes by treatment with a decoction of sappan wood. Abir is used in Hindu religious rituals. “Ghisi abir” mixes zedoary with artemisia, cardamom, cerasus, cloves, and deodar. Young rhizomes are diced and added to salads. Steam distillation of the rhizomes yields 1-1.5 io of a light yellow volatile EO. The cores of young shoots are eaten (FAC). Fresh leaves, scented like lemongrass, may be used as a vegetable or used for seasoning fish. Zedoary is used in the manufacture of liqueurs, various essences, and bitters, and in cosmetics and perfumes (FAC, UPW). Dried rhizomes spice various bitters, e.g., Swedish bitters, and liqueurs, like Italy’s “Ramazzotti.” Singers chew the rhizome to clear their throats (FAC, UPW).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Zedoary) —

Propagated exclusively from divisions of the rhizomes. These are cut into pieces bearing buds and planted in raked soil at the beginning of the monsoon season. Bown (2001) suggests well-drained soil with ample humidity and tropical climate with min temp 13°C (55°F). They are usually cultivated in shaded deciduous forests or along shaded irrigation channels. A 2-year period is required for the full development of the rhizomes.

Chemistry (Zedoary) —

Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in zedoary. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.

Curcumol —

Antisarcomic; Antitumor (Cervix).

Curdione —

Antileukopenic; Antisarcomic; Antitumor; Antitumor (Cervix); Anti-X-radiation.

Dehydrocurdione —

Analgesic 40-200 mg/kg; Antiarthritic 120 mg/kg/day/12 days; Antiedemic 200 mg/kg; Antiinflammatory; Antioxidant; Antipyretic; Antiradicular 100-5000 [iM; Calcium-Channel-Blocker 0.1-1 mM.
Zingiberene — Antirhinoviral; Antiulcer IC54 = 100 mg/kg; Carminative; Insecticide.

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Staph (Poaceae) Lemongrass, West Indian Lemongrass

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Staph (Poaceae) Lemongrass, West Indian Lemongrass

Synonym —

Andropogon citratus DC.
Medicinal Uses (Lemongrass) — Reported to be analgesic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, depurative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, pectoral, stimulant, and tonic. The EO is rubefacient and used externally for chronic rheumatic ailments, lumbago, and sprains. It is also carminative, diaphoretic, spasmodic, stimulant, and tonic, used internally for catarrh, febrile conditions, and gas. With black pepper, it is given in congestive and neuralgic forms of dysmenorrhea, diarrhea, and dropsical condition caused by malaria and vomiting. Tea made from the leaves is a stomachic tonic; with buttermilk, it is used to treat ringworm. Leaves also used in vapor bath. Orientals add the leaves to baths to stop body odor, reduce swelling, improve circulation, and to treat bladder troubles, cuts, leprosy, skin eruptions, and wounds. Orientals also use it for asthma, convulsions, hemoptysis, oppression, puerperium, sprains, and toothache. Latin Americans chew the rhizome until frayed, then use it as a toothbrush. It is boiled whole, with dirt attached to the root, as an abortifacient.
Leung and Foster (1995) reports antioxidant characteristics of the EO, which sensationalists might promote as increasing longevity. Alpha-citral (geranial) and beta-citral (neral) individually elicit antibacterial action on gram(-) and gram(+) organisms. Myrcene did not show observable antibacterial activity on its own. But myrcene, also anesthetic, enhanced activities when mixed with either of the other two main components. Here’s another hint that the whole herb is better than its individual components (LIL). Some folk uses are not holding up to scientific scrutiny. One unpublished document in the USDA files is entitled “Lemongrass, the Medicine that Wasn’t.” I think more highly of it (DAD, LIL).
According to Anon (1998), lemongrass oil, like that of orange and peppermint, will “kill most strains of fungal and bacterial infections.” In a study of 52 plant oils and extracts for activity against Acinetobacter baumanii, Aeromonas veronii biogroup sobria, Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli bacteria, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotype typhimurium, Serratia marcescens, and Staphylococcus aureus, Hammer et al. (1999) noted that lemongrass, oregano, and bay inhibited all organisms at concentrations of < 2.0% (X10438227). Lemongrass, eucalyptus, peppermint, and orange oils, were effective against 22 bacterial strains. Aegle and palmarosa oils inhibited 21 bacteria; patchouli and ageratum oils inhibited 20 bacteria (including Gram (+) and Gram (-). Twelve fungi were inhibited by citronella, geranium, lemongrass, orange, palmarosa, and patchouli oils. The MIC of eucalyptus, lemongrass, palmarosa, and peppermint oils ranged from 0.16 to > 20 |jl/ml for 18 bacteria and 0.25-10 nl/ml for 12 fungi (X8893526).
Vapors of several EOs are active against dermatophytes, like Tinea and Trichophyton. Of those seven studied by Inouye et al. (2001), cinnamon was most potent, followed by lemongrass, thyme, and perilla (chiso) oils, which killed the conidia and inhibited germination and hyphal elongation at 1-4 ng/ml air (X11413931).
Aphid (Aphis gossypii) populations were significantly reduced with lemongrass extract prepared by grinding 10 g green leaf in 1 liter of water (DAD, LIL).
Indications (Lemongrass) — Acid Indigestion (f; DAV); Allergy (1; FNF); Athlete’s Foot (1; BOW); Backache (f; AAB); Bacteria (1; AAB; FNF; PH2); Bronchosis (1; FNF; PH2; TRA); Bruise (f; MPG); Cancer (1; JNU); Candida (1; X10438227); Catarrh (f; MPG); Cholera (f; MPI; SKJ); Cold (1; AAB; FNF; TRA); Congestion (1; FNF); Cough (1; APA; FNF; MPG; TRA); Cramp (1;
AAB; APA; FNF; MPG); Dermatosis (f; APA); Diabetes (f; HHB); Diarrhea (f; APA); Dysmenor-rhea (f; DAV); Dyspepsia (f; APA; IED; MPG); Dysuria (f; JFM); Enterosis (f; APA; DAV; JFM;
MPG; PH2); Escherichia (1; X10438227); Exhaustion (f; KOM); Fever (1; APA; DAV; IED; PH2; TRA); Flu (1; APA; FNF; MPG; TRA); Fungus (1; AAB; FNF); Gas (f; TRA); Gastrosis (f; AAB; APA; DAV; MPG; PH2); Gingivosis (f; JFM); Headache (f; AAB; SKJ); High Cholesterol (2; FNF; MPG); High Blood Pressure (1; APA; MPG; PH2; TRA); Gas (f; APA; PH2); Headache (f; WBB); Infection (1; DAA; FNF; JBU); Inflammation (1; FNF); Insomnia (f; APA); Klebsiella (1;
X10438227); Leprosy (1; PH2; WBB); Lumbago (f; PH2); Malaria (f; JFM; SKJ); Mycosis (1;
X10438227); Myosis (1; AAB; KOM); Nervousness (1; FNF); Neuralgia (f; KOM; MPG; PH2); Pain (1; AAB; APA; FNF; JBU; PH2); Parasite (f; PH2); Pediculosis (f; BOW); Pneumonia (f;
JFM); Pulmonosis (f; MPG); Pyorrhea (f; JFM); Rheumatism (f; APA; PH2); Ringworm (f; APA);
Salmonella (1; X10438227); Scabies (1; BOW); Stomachache (f; DAA; DAV; MPG; TRA); Toothache (f; WBB); Tuberculosis (f; JFM); UTI (f; MPG); Wound (f; MPG); Yeast (1; AAB; FNF).

Lemongrass for cold/flu:

• Analgesic: myrcene; quercetin
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; linalool; linalyl-acetate; myrcene
• Antiallergic: 1,8-cineole; citral; linalool; quercetin
• Antibacterial: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; caryophyllene; citral; citronel-lal; citronellol; dipentene; geraniol; limonene; linalool; luteolin; myrcene; neral; nerol; quercetin; rutin
• Antibronchitic: 1,8-cineole
• Antiflu: alpha-pinene; limonene; quercetin
• Antihistaminic: citral; linalool; luteolin; quercetin; rutin
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-pinene; caryophyllene; luteolin; quercetin; rutin
• Antioxidant: linalyl-acetate; luteolin; myrcene; quercetin; rutin
• Antipharyngitic: 1,8-cineole; quercetin
• Antiseptic: 1,8-cineole; alpha-terpineol; citral; citronellal; citronellol; furfural; geraniol; limonene; linalool; nerol
• Antitussive: 1,8-cineole; hcn; luteolin
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; dipentene; limonene; linalool; luteolin; quercetin; rutin
• Bronchorelaxant: citral; linalool
• COX-2-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Expectorant: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; citral; dipentene; geraniol; limonene; linalool Lemongrass for pain:
• Analgesic: myrcene; quercetin
• Anesthetic: 1,8-cineole; linalool; linalyl-acetate; myrcene
• Antiinflammatory: alpha-pinene; caryophyllene; luteolin; quercetin; rutin
• Antileukotriene: quercetin
• Antispasmodic: 1,8-cineole; caryophyllene; farnesol; geraniol; limonene; linalool; lina-lyl-acetate; luteolin; myrcene; quercetin; rutin
• COX-2-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: quercetin
• Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor: luteolin; quercetin; rutin
• Myorelaxant: 1,8-cineole; luteolin; rutin
• Sedative: 1,8-cineole; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; caryophyllene; citral; citronellal; citronellol; dipentene; farnesol; geraniol; geranyl-acetate; isovaleric-acid; limonene; lina-lool; linalyl-acetate; nerol

Other Uses (Lemongrass) —

Very important in Asian cookery, lemongrass leaf blades are used for teas, but the fibrous stems are used in cuisine, flavoring beef, fish, poultry, seafood, and typical Thai and Vietnamese soups. Skinned chicken, boiled with two stalks, is great cold or in cold salads. The juicier lower end of the stalk is smashed with other spices to season Indonesian spiced coconut milk with crab, Thai curries, and Vietnamese marinated beef (AAR). Asians blend it skillfully with chiles or with coconut milk. Basal portions of the leafy shoots are chopped to flavor curries, fish,
soups, and sauces. Center of tender stems is used in curry powders. Outer leaves are tied in loops and cooked with food as a flavorant; they are removed before serving. Japanese add to spiced sherbet. Hearts of the young shoots are eaten with rice. Lemongrass is substituted for yogurt in the preparation of “nistisemos trahanas” (fasting trahanas), a fermented milk and cereal food. This type of trahanas is used during religious holidays in Greece and Turkey, when it would be sacrilegious to consume animal milks (FAC). Oil distilled from leaves is used as a popular ingredient of food and drinks. According to Leung (1995), lemongrass oil (GRAS §182.20) is used in most major food categories, including alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy deserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins and puddings, meat and meat products, and fats and oils, at about 33 ppm and 36 ppm for highest average maximum use levels for candy and baked goods, respectively. It is also used in creams, lotions, and perfumes with maximum use level at 0.7% oil in the perfumes. Citral, principal constituent of the EO, varies with age from 78-85%. Oil is a good source of synthetic violet odor (ionones), used to perfume soaps, bath salts, and cosmetics. It is one major source of vitamin A. Oil is used in the U.S. for furniture polish. The rhizome is used to flavor tobacco. Lemongrass residue with salt is readily eaten by cattle and gives no flavor residue in milk from cows fed the pulp.
One of America’s best selling herbal teas (1978), “Red Zinger,” contains, in addition to lemongrass, hibiscus flowers, rose hips, orange peel, and peppermint leaves. Wild cherry bark is being phased out of this popular tea, because it is difficult to obtain. I’ve made a “Red Zapper” liqueur by steeping my “Red Ringer” tea base in vodka. I have made my “Red Ringer” with lemonbalm and peppermint for the snap, bergamot petals or wild cherries for the red, and rosehips for the vitamins.
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2,  et al., 2002.

Cultivation (Lemongrass) —

In the temperate zone, a large potted frost-sensitive lemongrass in a sun-parlor or sunny window can provide for a family. It can be outplanted during the frost free season, subdividing and bringing under glass for winter (LIL). Tucker and DeBaggio (2000) say the frost sensitive plant does best in full sun, well drained sandy, moist but not constantly wet, soil pH 4.3-8.4 (average 6.0) soil temperatures 64°-100°F (18°-38°C), relative humidity 40-100. Tops are killed at 28°F (-2°C) (TAD). Since seed rarely if ever form, propagation is mainly by division of clumps. Division, 25-50 from a mature clump, are separated by tearing them off base of plant, retaining a few roots on each. Before planting, tops of divisions are cut back to about 7.5 cm. Sometimes divisions are torn off mature plants left in place. A complete fertilizer, containing ammonium sulfate, calcium superphosphate, and potassium sulfate, at rate of 100 kg/ha, and calcium hydrate, is applied at bottom of furrows just before planting. Application of ammonium nitrate, urea, and IAA enhances vegetative growth (fresh weight of leaves more than 60%) with concomitant increase of volatile oils and their main constituents (MPI). Plants or stools are set in early spring in rows 1 m apart, spaced about 45 cm apart in rows. Planting is done just after a rain, or at a time when sufficient moisture is available not to require artificial watering. Irrigation best be frequent as lemongrass is shallow rooted and does not tolerate much water stress. Planting may be mechanical. Potash is required in Florida soil. As soon as plants become well established in field, side application of fertilizer is added and well worked in at first cultivation. Cultivation should be frequent throughout spring to conserve moisture and throughout summer to control weeds, as a few ill-smelling weeds in crop at harvest time may greatly damage odor of oil. After first year, only slight cultivation is necessary, as a well-established lemongrass stand tends to retard weed growth. On some soils, potash increases weight of grass, but N plus K produces highest yields, up to 41 tons/ha. No additional fertilizer is required for ratoon crop. Under irrigated conditions, lemongrass can remove 186 kg/ha N, 26 P and 384 K. In India, hillsides are burned in January to burn down the old useless straw; 6 months later, the fresh crop is ready to cut (DAD). First cutting should be made 4-5 months after planting, when plants are 75-100 cm tall, clumps 20-25 cm in diameter. In fall of first year, a second cutting is made. After the first year, spring growth is more rapid, and you can take three harvests a year. Mechanically harvest by mowing with blade adjusted to cut plants 20 cm above ground. Cut material raked up with horserake run crosswise of rows. Closer cutting is not profitable because of low oil content in lower portion of plant. Harvest by hand with a machete. Equipment for distillation of lemongrass oil is the same as for other volatile oils. Plants are passed through a fodder cutter, cut into about 5 cm lengths, and loaded about 45 kg/2 cm m of space in retort. In retort of 10 cu m, a charge of 1.5 tons can be distilled in 2-2.5 hours by steam. Distillation under 20 lb pressure increases yield of oil, but oil is dark and of low citral content. After oil is distilled and freed of water, it is dried by shaking with anhydrous calcium chloride and filtered. In the West Indies, sea or salt water distillation increases yield of oil and produces a better quality oil than fresh water. Yields of grass vary from 18-30 MT/ha (fresh weight) for first cutting, 6.2-10 MT/ha for ratoon cutting. Fresh yields reported as high as 140 MT/ha (DAD). Oil yields may run 10-40 lb/a (LIL). Maximum oil yields are 419 liters/ha (45 gallons/acre) when cut at 60-day intervals (TAD).

Chemistry (Lemongrass) —

Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in lemongrass. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium,  and , 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
Citral—ADI = 500 |Jg/kg; Antiallergic; Antianaphylactic; Antibacterial; Anticancer; Antihistaminic; Antiseptic 5.2 x phenol; Antishock; Barbiturate-Synergist; Bronchorelaxant; Expectorant; Fungicide MIC 625 ng/ml; Glaucomagenic; Herbicide IC50 = 115 \\M; Nematicide IC52 = 100 ng/ml, MLC = 100-260 ^g/ml; p450(2B1)-Inhibitor IC50 = 1.19 |M; Prostatitigenic 185 mg/kg/day/3 ms; Sedative ED 1-32 mg/kg; Teratogenic; Trichomonicide LD100 = 150 | g/ml; Tyrosinase-Inhibitor ID50 = 1.5 mM; LD50 = 4960 orl rat; ADI 0.5 gm/kg.
Citronellal — Antibacterial; Antiseptic 3.8 x phenol; Antistaphylococcic; Antistreptococcic; Can-didacide; Embryotoxic; Fungicide; Insectifuge; Irritant; Motor-Depressant; Mutagenic?; Nematicide MIC 1 mg/ml; p450(2B1)-Inhibitor IC50 = 1.56 |M; Sedative ED = 1 mg/kg; Teratogenic;
LD50 = >5000 mg/kg orl rat.
Citronellol — ADI = 500 | g/kg; Antibacterial; Antiseptic; Antistaphylococcic; Antistreptococcic; Candidicide; Fungicide; Herbicide IC50 = 160 | M; Irritant; Nematicide MLC = 100 | g/ml; Sedative; Trichomonicide LD100 = 300 ^g/ml; LD50 = 4000 ims mus.
Geraniol — Anthelminthic; Antibacterial MIC = 64 ng/ml, MIC = 400 ng/ml, MBC = 800 ng/ml; Anticancer; Anticariogenic MIC = 400 | g/ml; Antimelanomic IC50 = 150 | M/l; Antimycobacterial
MIC = 64 | g/ml PL; Antisalmonella MIC = 400 | g/ml; Antiseptic MIC = 64 | g/ml, 400-800
| g/ml, 7 x phenol; Antispasmodic; Antitubercular MIC = 64 | g/ml; Antitumor (Pancreas) IC50 = 265 |jM; Ascaricide; Candidicide; CNS-Stimulant; Embryotoxic; Emetic (3 x ipecac); Expectorant; Fungicide IC93 = 2 mM; Herbicide IC100-2000 \\M; Insectifuge 50 ppm; Insectiphile; Nematicide IC86 = 100 ^g/ml; MLC = 1000 ^g/ml; Sedative; Trichomonicide LD100 = 300 ^g/ml; LD50 = 3600 mg/kg orl rat.
Geranyl-Acetate — Insectiphile; Sedative; ADI = 500 | g/kg. Myrcene — See also Alpinia galanga.

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