Fly (Insects)

Folk Beliefs and Superstitions

An integral part of any society’s cultural heritage is the collection of stories and traditions passed from generation to generation through the ages. Folklore serves to define a people’s identity by mirroring its beliefs, concerns, and fantasies. The passing on of traditional tales thus creates a lasting, tangible bond between the living and their ancestors and provides meaning to a people’s existence in the present.
As with other aspects of human culture, the characters, lessons, and motivation of human folklore are greatly influenced by a people’s surroundings. It is therefore not surprising that ubiquitous insects are common elements in the variety of traditional stories told by people from both past and present societies. Among the variety of loosely categorized stories, traditions, and beliefs typically passed orally through time in human societies are folk tales and superstitious beliefs. Although such a medium for passing on information often results in inconsistent transmission across time, it provides an avenue for the creative embellishment of stories that reflects the ideals of the teller and the contemporary state of the particular culture. Other aspects of a people’s culture passed on in this way, such as religion or mythology, can be thought of as fundamentally different and thus treated separately.

FOLKLORE AND MYTHOLOGY

Although one certainly grades into the other and it is impossible to generalize across every situation, there are some marked differences between folk tales and stories classified as mythology. Myths are typically more infused with expressions of the unconscious and have more symbolic or religious significance than folk tales. Entire societies are grounded in myths, not folklore. Myths also accompany rituals and ceremonies much more so than folk tales. For example, myths are a common medium for reenactments of the past, such as the creation of the world or other significant events in a culture’s history. This is true sometimes for stories treated as folklore, but they are much less engrained with ritual or any extended meaning much beyond the particular focus of the tale. In general, folk tales tend to be more for entertainment, whereas myths tend to be more for spiritual instruction.
Folk tales and superstitions serve a variety of purposes, some of which reveal possible reasons for their origin. Some beliefs and tales deal with societal problems and incompatibilities between culture and nature. Some are used as vehicles for wish fulfillment or as a means to speculate on explanations for phenomena observed in nature. They also may serve as mere tales for the enjoyment and entertainment of both the teller and the listener. Other tales serve to instill moral lessons or provide instructions for living one’s life in a particular way. Such tales, because they are inherently interesting and entertaining, are particularly suited to providing historical or moral instruction to young minds that might otherwise be unrecep-tive to such teachings.


TALES THAT EXPLAIN OBSERVED PHENOMENA

Many folk tales dealing with insects are based on fanciful explanations of natural phenomena. The ancient tale of the bugonia apparently originated from such confusion. Bugonia comes from a Greek word that means ox progeny, and is based on the notion that a swarm of honey bees could be spontaneously generated from the rotting carcass of an ox (Fig. 1). This was not merely a description of something perceived to occur in nature, but was a means whereby people could generate many new individuals of these beneficial insects. For this to be successful, precise instructions had to be followed regarding the proper methods and timing of the slaughter and preparation of the ox carcass. This European tale is also found in Chinese and Japanese folklore, and similar beliefs existed for the generation of other bee-like insects from the carcasses of other animals, namely wasps from horses and hornets from mules.
The bugonia tale originated in ancient Egypt, in a place and time at which the ox and the bee were revered as gods. A Biblical reference to this phenomenon (Joshua 14:8) attests to the antiquity of this belief. This tale of ancient times persisted well into the 1600s, when
A 16th century depiction of spontaneous generation of honey bees from a dead ox.
FIGURE 1 A 16th century depiction of spontaneous generation of honey bees from a dead ox.
more careful observations of insect biology led to other explanations. In 1883, the eminent dipterist C. R. Osten Sacken proposed an explanation for the origin of the bugonia story that led to it being discredited. The supposed bees and wasps occurring in the carcasses of dead animals were in fact the drone fly, Eristalis tenax (Syrphidae). This fly, a Batesian mimic of honey bees, breeds in putrefying organic matter and could easily be mistaken for a bee by the untrained eye.
The presence of particular forest clearings in western Amazonia is ascribed to the activities of forest gnomes known as chulla chaqui. These mischievous creatures live near the clearings and eat the fruits of the only shrub that grows in such places, Duroia spp. (Rubiaceae). Like many other figures in zoological folklore, these gnomes can take on the appearance of other forest creatures. They take particular delight in transforming into a brilliant blue morpho butterfly, whereby they attract the attention of human visitors and lure them into the forest, only to disappear and leave the disoriented humans lost. In reality, these clearings are formed and maintained by ants that live in a symbiotic relationship with Duroia. The ants clear potential competitor seedlings from areas around their myrmecophytic host plants in exchange for a place to live. This folk explanation is similar to that for small clearings in temperate forests or fields that serve as places where woodland fairies commonly gather. Fairies, those furtive, entomologically inspired imaginary beings of diminutive human form that typically bear insect-like wings (Fig. 2) , are common figures in European folklore. In fields, the clearings known as fairy rings, supposedly caused by dancing fairies, are in reality caused by underground fungi that make their appearance in the form of an ever-expanding ring of mushrooms that encircles a bare patch among the surrounding vegetation.
Another example of transformation surrounds the explanation for the name of a famous insect used by people as an object of adornment. In Mexico, the jewel-adorned ironclad beetles that serve as
 A typical insect-winged fairy.
FIGURE 2 A typical insect-winged fairy.
living brooches are known as Ma’Kech after a legend about a Mayan Prince of Yucatan who is said to have escaped his lover’s guards by transforming, with the help of the Moon Goddess, into this beetle. His lover was so impressed by his resolve that she uttered “Ma’Kech.” This phrase not only means “you are a man” but also means “does not eat,” and refers to this insect’s and the Prince’s ability to go without food for long periods of time.
The phenomenon of crypsis (imitating the background in form, color, pattern, or behavior by an organism to avoid detection) is explained by some indigenous peoples using yet another example of transformation. It is said that leaves can transform into insects such as katydids and mantids. This is a reasonable explanation given the striking leaf-like appearance of these insects. The transformation of plants into insects was also implicated by some early European naturalists in their explanation of the issuance of insects from galls, nuts, and fruit. This fanciful theory supposed that the various insects brought forth from these sources were generated by the “vegetative and sensitive soul” of the plant. The origin of another organism associated with insects is similarly explained. The elongate fruiting bodies of certain fungi (Cordyceps spp.) that commonly attack insects in the American tropics are thought to be the first stage in the development of particular jungle vines that are used for binding poles.
Explanations for insect behavior often take the form of folk tales. Several stories and rhymes tell the tale of the origin of the katydid’s song. These short tales typically center on a girl or young woman named Katy who is accused of committing some bad deed such as deceiving or killing another person. The shameful act is immortalized by the singing insects in the trees that continue to debate whether “Katy did” or “Katy didn’t.” Some insects spend the greater part of their lives boring through and feeding upon living or dead wood. According to a story from the Tahltan of British Columbia, these insects were tricked into searching for their food in this manner by another insect. Long ago a beetle larva and a mosquito lived together. Every day, the larva watched his friend the mosquito come home engorged with blood. Upon being asked by the beetle larva where he was able to regularly find food, the mosquito, not wanting to give up his secret, replied that he sucked his meal out of trees. The next day the larva began boring into wood looking for food, an activity that continues to this day.
In addition to biological phenomena, stories about the origins of some geophysical entities similarly incorporate insects. The origin of fire has been attributed to the actions of fireflies that were responsible for starting the mythological first campfire. According to the Yagua Indians of the upper Amazon, the origin of the river is a result of the misguided actions of insects. Before the existence of the river, the water used by people came from the “tree of water” that, when cut, would release some of this precious liquid. In an effort to liberate more water, wood-boring insects were deceptively used by some children in a plan that damaged the tree such that it released all its waters at once. This resulted in the formation in the mighty Amazon River.

BENEFICIARY TALES AND ENTOMOPHOBIC LEGENDS

Another force behind some folklore is a means of obtaining some diffuse or ancillary benefit for the originator or propagator of the tale. The tale of the Machaca among some inhabitants of Amazonia is a good example. The purportedly deadly consequences of the bite from the Machaca, which in actuality is the harmless but menacing looking fulgorid Fulgora laternaria. can be thwarted by having sexual relations within 24h. These insects instill fear and should be avoided, but should the unfortunate happen, a cure is available. Such “sex antidotes” are fairly widespread among folk cures. The potential benefits to those disseminating such tales are obvious.
Other superstitious beliefs benefit particular insects by protecting them from undue harm from people. The Cornish believed that fairies were the souls of ancient heathen people that were too good for Hell but too bad for Heaven. These beings had gradually shrunk from their natural size to that of ants. It was therefore unlucky to kill ants. Similar tales of bad luck when people willingly or inadvertently step on or otherwise harm particular insects are found throughout the world. This is particularly true for insects perceived as beautiful or beneficial to human endeavors such as butterflies and ladybird beetles.
Some insect folklore stems from a general dislike of insects by people and serves to pass this feeling on to others and propagate fright and ill will toward insects. In some stories, insects may be stigmatized with imagined, dangerous qualities. This is most common for insects that have a frightening appearance and gives reason for them to be despised and avoided. Dragonflies and damselflies, for example, are the bearers of nearly 100 English folk names related to their appearance or supposed behaviors. One of their names is “the devil’s darning needle,” referring to their ability to sew closed the mouth, nostrils, and eyelids of someone unfortunate enough to be the focus of their displeasure. Other examples focus on fanciful abilities of certain pestiferous species to invade nearly any aspect of human life. One fictitious tale describes the plight of an unlucky woman who kept her hair pinned up for such a long time that it became infested with cockroaches.
A little known legend surrounds the comings and goings of body lice, Pediculus humanus humanus, an ectoparasite long associated with humans. There was a belief during the 16th century that during trans-Atlantic voyages, lice on the heads and bodies of mariners would miraculously disappear from the westward traveler at a line of longitude roughly 100 leagues west of the Azores. Furthermore, these parasites would return to the eastbound sailors at the same meridian. The basis of this sailor’s tale is unclear, but it may be loosely related to the effects that the increase in ambient temperature and the associated shedding of clothing had on the number of observed lice as ships approached more tropical climes.

INSECTS AS OMENS AND SOOTHSAYERS

Insects that are most commonly featured in human folklore are those that most closely associate with humans or impact human affairs. It is not surprising then that insects such as cockroaches, mosquitoes, and bees are some of the most common subjects in stories and superstitions in which an insect’s presence or activity is related to significant events in people’s lives.
Because humans have practiced honey hunting and beekeeping for thousands of years, it is not surprising that there is much folklore surrounding these activities. The discovery and collection of honey is reason for merriment and joy in many hunter-gatherer societies and much significance has been attributed to the presence of bees and their role as makers of honey. The activities of foraging honey bees are used to predict the weather. When bees forage far from the hive, good weather is expected, but when they forage nearby, poor weather is sure to come. In ancient Rome, swarms of bees foretold impending misfortune. The significance of the timing of bee swarms is exemplified by the following rhyme:
A swarm of bees in May, is worth a load of hay. A swarm of bees in June, is worth a silver spoon. A swarm of bees in July, is not worth a fly.
This saying is relevant to the beekeeper whose summer swarms of bees heading off into the distance mean lost assets.
In addition to bees, the presence and behavior of other insects are used to predict the weather. The most widely known insect-mediated weather forecaster is the larvae of some tiger moths (Arctiidae), known as woollybear caterpillars. These caterpillars, in particular those of the banded woollybear, Pyrrharctia isabella, are thickly covered with erect black hairs and have a band of reddish brown hairs encircling the middle of their body. The width of the central band supposedly predicts the weather conditions of the coming winter. Narrow bands indicate a long, cold winter, whereas wide bands indicate a short, relatively warm winter. Other insects associated with weather forecasts are butterflies, flies, wasps, and ants. The Zuni of the American Southwest say to expect rain when the white butterfly flies from the southwest. American folklore tells us that when the gnats swarm, rain and warmer weather are believed to be coming, and when hornets build nests near the ground a harsh winter is expected. Rain is expected when ants withdraw into their nests or if someone steps on an ant. The European stag beetle, Lucanus cervus, is supposed to be able to attract thunderbolts. This association is perhaps explained because these beetles were commonly found in old oak trees that were often struck by lightning.
Because of this belief, these beetles were sacred to Thor, the Germanic god of thunder.
The association of particular insects with common events in distant parts of the world sometimes depends on the characteristics of a particular taxon. Praying mantids are considered pious prophets or soothsayers in various parts of the world. There is also a considerable body of folklore associated with ladybird beetles. Named after the Virgin Mary (Our Lady), these beetles are widely equated with good luck and are often associated with the ability to portend happy events. These beetles are reputed to have been sacred to Freyja, the ancient Norse goddess of love. To harm one of these insects would certainly bring bad luck. That the most common European species of ladybird has seven spots is the basis for one explanation why this beetle is venerated in this part of the world. The number 7 has long been considered a mystical, powerful, and “perfect” number. In southeastern France, a young girl can predict the year when she will marry by placing a ladybird beetle on her finger and counting the years aloud until the beetle flies away. In other instances, an insect’s significance depends on characteristics or behaviors shared between quite different taxa.
In general, the insects found in the folklore of a particular place are drawn from the local fauna. Consequently, significant events common to people worldwide are associated with different species of insect. In British folklore, the presence of deathwatch beetles (Anobiidae) is correlated with the demise of someone in the household. These beetles that live in wood, such as that framing an old English house, send telegraphic messages to each other by tapping their heads on the tunnel walls. This tapping sound is audible to people when all else is quiet, such as in a silent room during a bedside deathwatch. In parts of the Neotropics, the activities of termites fulfill this role as a harbinger of death in a similar manner. Other insects associated with impending death include the appearance of lice in one’s dreams, cockroaches flying in one’s room, and the sighting of a death’s head hawk moth (Acherontia atropos). The scales on the dor-sum of the thorax of this moth form the readily recognizable image of a whitish human skull against a dark background. The association of this moth with death in the minds of humans was inevitable.
Often the appearance of a given insect conveys a different meaning in different places or at different times. For example, in some parts of the world, a cricket in the house means good luck, but in other places the presence of this insect means ill fortune. According to one superstition in Brazil, careless contact with fireflies can cause blindness, but in the hands of a curandeiro (folk healer or medicine man), fireflies can be used to cure blindness.

INSTRUCTIONAL TALES

In addition to being entertaining, some folk tales serve as a useful means of instruction. Many tales are told to convey a moral message or pass on useful information in an interesting, amusing, and hence more easily remembered format. An example is that of Aesop’s fable of the ant and the grasshopper. While the ant concerned himself all summer with gathering provisions for the upcoming winter, the grasshopper spent his time in leisure and song. The grasshopper even derided the ant for spending so much of his time at work instead of play. When winter came, the grasshopper was not prepared and suffered the consequences of his folly. The ant, on the other hand, lived comfortably through the winter on the stores he gathered all summer. The activities of these insects in this story are used to show the importance of preparation for future times of necessity. In addition to ants, the behavior of other social insects such as termites, honey bees, and wasps is commonly used to exemplify the benefits of cooperation, diligence, and hard work.

FOLK MEDICINE

Folk remedies for the treatment of the innumerable ailments that befall humans and their animals are found worldwide. Although less important than herbal remedies, insects play a role in the folklore of healing and drug use. One of the most well-known insect-derived folk medicines is cantharidin. This powerful vesicant is derived from dried blister beetles, particularly Lytta vesicatoria. Although cantharidin can be extremely toxic to humans, as recently as the early 1900s, canthari-din was used to treat a variety of ailments such as asthma, epilepsy, warts, sterility, and bedwetting. In Europe, where the drug as well as the beetle is known as “Spanish fly,” powdered cantharidin was taken orally for its purported qualities as an aphrodisiac. Cossinus, a close friend of the Roman Emperor Nero, reportedly died when an Egyptian doctor gave him “cantharis” to drink for treatment of a skin disease.
Many other insects and insect-derived products have been, and sometimes continue to be, used to improve health and treat disease. One product of insects that is widely used today in the context of what might be called folk medicine is bee pollen. The consumption of bee pollen is said to improve general health and increase stamina. Tonics and teas derived from nearly every insect order, from bedbugs to beetles and cicadas, have found their way into the human apothecary. In China, exuviae left behind by newly emerged adult cicadas are used to prepare a tonic to treat eye disease and ailments of the lungs and liver and to soothe crying children. Another particularly interesting use of insect-derived pharmaceuticals in China has recently received much publicity. A tonic made from the fruiting body of the entomophagous fungus Cordyceps sinensis is considered a general-health and stress-relieving tonic. The fungus is collected in the wild from the dead caterpillar hosts of hepialid moths. In addition to the variety of ailments purportedly treated with this tonic, caterpillar fungus is also used to improve stamina and endurance. The tremendous performances of Chinese female distance runners in the early 1990s were attributed in part to the use of this caterpillar fungus tonic as part of their training regimen.
Although generally based on some empirical observation some time in the distant past, the validity of insect-based folk medicines should not be assumed, even on the grounds of widespread and long-term use. This is particularly true of aphrodisiacs. The symbolic, religious, and ceremonial associations common to the historical use of many drugs tend to obscure evidence on actual potency. On the other hand, the medicinal use of insects in folk remedies should not be dismissed outright as untrue. Each insect species possesses a unique biochemistry that has the potential to perform any number of medicinal tasks. Some insect-based folk remedies, such as the use of bee venom to treat arthritis and rheumatism, may eventually find a place in modern medicine or may at least serve as the basis for the derivation of modern treatments.
In addition to folk remedies that use insects to cure ailments, another body of insect folklore deals with ways to rid ourselves of pestiferous insects. Pliny the Elder wrote that one sure way to rid one’s fields of pests, particularly plagues of cantharid beetles, is to have a menstruating woman walk through the field. This treatment was said to cause the “caterpillars, worms, beetles, and other vermin to fall to the ground.” One widespread remedy for an infestation of cockroaches is to seal a few roaches and three coins in an envelope and leave it outside. Whoever picks up the envelope would not only be a little richer, but would also be the new owner of your roaches. A simpler remedy was to slip some roaches to some unsuspecting acquaintance to take home with them with the assurance that your roaches would soon follow. Problem ants can be dealt with in much the same way. By rolling several of the bothersome ants in a leaf and leaving it at a neighbor’s house, you could be sure that the ants in your house would soon depart to take up residence with the neighbor. Similarly, some folklore deals with how other animals rid themselves of pestiferous insects. Scottish foxes infested with fleas were said to hold a lock of wool in their mouth and then slowly submerse themselves in water until only the nose and the wool were above water. In trying to escape the water, the fleas end up on the fox’s nose and the wool. To finish the job, the fox puts its nose under water and releases the wool along with its passengers of fleas.

CONCLUSION

The acculturation of indigenous peoples worldwide, the disconnection of people from the natural world, and the spread of scientifically based knowledge facilitated by modern means of communication all work in concert to diminish the generation and proliferation of folklore in modern societies. With the ongoing loss of folk traditions in the modern world, so goes the place of insects in traditional folk beliefs and superstitions. Some continue to live on in various forms among contemporary societies, especially among indigenous peoples in places where the impact of the modern world has yet to take hold. The tidbits of factual observations and the incorrect information that came from antiquity through folklore formed the basis on which the first truly scientific naturalists started their work in the 16th century and led to modern scientific investigation. What was once a way of dealing with problems of unknown nature in our world is now being supplanted by stories of mere curiosity, which although largely untrue, provide interesting insight into the origin and development of human societies, cultures, and religions and are aesthetically pleasing to study.

Next post:

Previous post: