CONCEPT
If chemistry were compared to a sport, then the study of atomic and molecular properties, along with learning about the elements and how they relate on the periodic table, would be like going to practice. Learning about chemical reactions, which includes observing them and sometimes producing them in a laboratory situation, is like stepping out onto the field for the game itself. Just as every sport has its “vocabulary”—the concepts of offense and defense, as well as various rules and strategies—the study of chemical reactions involves a large set of terms. Some aspects of reactions may seem rather abstract, but the effects are not. Every day, we witness evidence of chemical reactions—for instance, when a fire burns, or metal rusts. To an even greater extent, we are surrounded by the products of chemical reactions: the colors in the clothes we wear, or artificial materials such as polymers, used in everything from nylon running jackets to plastic milk containers.
HOW IT WORKS
What Is a Chemical Reaction?
If liquid water is boiled, it is still water; likewise frozen water, or ice, is still water. Melting, boiling, or freezing simply by the application of a change in temperature are examples of physical changes, because they do not affect the internal composition of the item or items involved. A chemical change, on the other hand, occurs when the actual composition changes—that is, when one substance is transformed into another. Water can be chemically changed, for instance, when an electric current is run through a sample, separating it into oxygen and hydrogen gas.
Chemical change requires a chemical reaction, a process whereby the chemical properties of a substance are altered by a rearrangement of the atoms in the substance. Of course we cannot see atoms with the naked eye, but fortunately, there are a number of clues that tell us when a chemical reaction has occurred. In many chemical reactions, for instance, the substance may experience a change of state or phase—as for instance when liquid water turns into gaseous oxygen and hydrogen as a result of electrolysis.
How do we know when a chemical reaction has occurred?
Changes of state may of course be merely physical—as for example when liquid water is boiled to form a vapor. (These and other examples of physical changes resulting from temperature changes are discussed in the essays on Properties of Matter; Temperature and Heat.) The vapor produced by boiling water, as noted above, is still water; on the other hand, when liquid water is turned into the elemental gases hydrogen and oxygen, a more profound change has occurred.
Likewise the addition of liquid potassium chromate (K2CrO4) to a solution of barium nitrate (Ba[NO3]2 forms solid barium chromate (BaCrO4). In the reaction described, a solution is also formed, but the fact remains that the mixture of two solids has resulted in the formation of a solid in a different solution. Again, this is a far more complex phenomenon than the mere freezing of water to form ice: here the fundamental properties of the materials involved have changed.
A microscopic close-up of nylon fibers. Nylon is formed through a synthesis reaction.
The physical change of water to ice or steam, of course, involves changes in temperature; likewise, chemical changes are often accompanied by changes in temperature, the crucial difference being that these changes are the result of alterations in the chemical properties of the substances involved. Such is the case, for instance, when wood burns in the presence of oxygen: once wood is turned to ash, it has become an entirely different mixture than it was before. Obviously, the ashes cannot be simply frozen to turn them back into wood again. This is an example of an irreversible chemical reaction.
Chemical reactions may also involve changes in color. In specific proportions and under the right conditions, carbon—which is black—can be combined with colorless hydrogen and oxygen to produce white sugar. This suggests another kind of change: a change in taste. (Of course, not every product of a chemical reaction should be tasted—some of the compounds produced may be toxic, or at the very least, extremely unpleasant to the taste buds.) Smell, too, can change. Sulfur is odorless in its elemental form, but when combined with hydrogen to form hydrogen sulfide (H2S), it becomes an evil-smelling, highly toxic gas.
The bubbling of a substance is yet another clue that a chemical reaction has occurred. Though water bubbles when it boils, this is merely because heat has been added to the water, increasing the kinetic energy of its molecules. But when hydrogen peroxide bubbles when exposed to oxygen, no heat has been added. As with many of the characteristics of a chemical reaction described above, bubbling does not always occur when two chemicals react; however, when one of these clues is present, it tells us that a chemical reaction may have taken place.
REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS
Chemical Equations
In every chemical reaction, there are participants known as reactants, which, by chemically reacting to one another, result in the creation of a product or products. As stated earlier, a chemical reaction involves changes in the arrangement of atoms. The atoms in the reactants (or, if the reactant is a compound, the atoms in its molecules) are rearranged. The atomic or molecular structure of the product is different from that of either reactant.
Note, however, that the number of atoms does not change. Atoms themselves are neither created nor destroyed, and in a chemical reaction, they merely change partners, or lose partners altogether as they return to their elemental form. This is a critical principle in chemistry, one that proves that medieval alchemists’ dream of turning lead into gold was based on a fallacy. Lead and gold are both elements, meaning that each has different atoms. To imagine a chemical reaction in which one becomes the other is like saying “one plus one equals one”
Symbols in a chemical equation
In a mathematical equation, the sums of the numbers on one side of the equals sign must be the same as the sum of the numbers on the other side. The same is true of a chemical equation, a representation of a chemical reaction in which the chemical symbols on the left stand for the reactants, and those on the right are the product or products. Instead of an equals sign separating them, an arrow, pointing to the right to indicate the direction of the reaction, is used.
Chemical equations usually include notation indicating the state or phase of matter for the
A close-up of rust on a piece of metal. Rust is an example of a combination reaction, not a decomposition reaction.
reactants and products. These symbols are as follows:
• (s): solid
• (/): liquid
• (g):gas
• (aq): dissolved in water (an aqueous solution)
The fourth symbol, of course, does not indicate a phase of matter per se (though obviously it appears to be a liquid); but as we shall see, aqueous solutions play a role in so many chemical reactions that these have their own symbol. At any rate, using this notation, we begin to symbolize the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water thus: H(g) + O(g) 4H2O(/).
This equation as written, however, needs to be modified in several ways. First of all, neither hydrogen nor oxygen is monatomic. In other words, in their elemental form, neither appears as a single atom; rather, these form diatomic (two-atom) molecules. Therefore, the equation must be rewritten as H2(g) + O2(g) 4H2O(/).But this is still not correct, as a little rudimentary analysis will show.
Balancing Chemical Equations
When checking a chemical equation, one should always break it down into its constituent elements, to determine whether all the atoms on the left side reappear on the right side; otherwise, the result may be an incorrect equation, along the lines of “1 + 1 = 1.” That is exactly what has happened here. On the left side, we have two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms; on the right side, however, there is only one oxygen atom to go with the two hydrogens.
Obviously, this equation needs to be corrected to account for the second oxygen atom, and the best way to do that is to show a second water molecule on the right side. This will be represented by a 2 before the H2O, indicating that two water molecules now have been created. The 2, or any other number used for showing more than one of a particular chemical species in a chemical equation, is called a coefficient. Now we have H^g) + O2(g) -4H2O(l).
Is this right? Once again, it is time to analyze the equation, to see if the number of atoms on the left equals the number on the right. Such analysis can be done in a number of ways: for instance, by symbolizing each chemical species as a circle with chemical symbols for each element in it. Thus a single water molecule would be shown as a circle containing two H’s and one O.
Whatever the method used, analysis will reveal that the problem of the oxygen imbalance has been solved: now there are two oxygens on the left, and two on the right. But solving that problem has created another, because now there are four hydrogen atoms on the right, as compared with two on the left. Obviously, another coefficient of 2 is needed, this time in front of the hydrogen molecule on the left. The changed equation is thus written as: 2H2(g) + O2(g) 4 2H2O(l). Now, finally, the equation is correct.
The process of balancing chemical equations
What we have done is to balance an unbalanced equation. An unbalanced equation is one in which the numbers of atoms on the left are not the same as the number of atoms on the right. Though an unbalanced equation is incorrect, it is sometimes a necessary step in the process of finding the balanced equation—one in which the number of atoms in the reactants and those in the product are equal.
In writing and balancing a chemical equation, the first step is to ascertain the identities, by formula, of the chemical species involved, as well as their states of matter. After identifying the reactants and product, the next step is to write an unbalanced equation. After that, the unbalanced equation should be subjected to analysis, as demonstrated above.
The example used, of course, involves a fairly simple substance, but often, much more complex molecules will be part of the equation. In performing analysis to balance the equation, it is best to start with the most complex molecule, and determine whether the same numbers and proportions of elements appear in the product or products. After the most complicated molecule has been dealt with, the second-most complex can then be addressed, and so on.
Assuming the numbers of atoms in the reactant and product do not match, it will be necessary to place coefficients before one or more chemical species. After this has been done, the equation should again be checked, because as we have seen, the use of a coefficient to straighten out one discrepancy may create another. Note that only coefficients can be changed; the formulas of the species themselves (assuming they were correct to begin with) should not be changed.
After the equation has been fully balanced, one final step is necessary. The coefficients must be checked to ensure that the smallest integers possible have been used. Suppose, in the above exercise, we had ended up with an equation that looked like this: 12H2(g) + 6O2(g) 412H2O(l). This is correct, but not very “clean.” Just as a fraction such as 12/24 needs to be reduced to its simplest form, 1/2, the same is true of a chemical equation. The coefficients should thus always be the smallest number that can be used to yield a correct result.
Types of Chemical Reactions
Note that in chemical equations, one of the symbols used is (aq), which indicates a chemical species that has been dissolved in water—that is, an aqueous solution. The fact that this has its own special symbol indicates that aqueous solutions are an important part of chemistry. Examples of reactions in aqueous solutions are discussed, for instance, in the essays on Acid-Base Reactions; Chemical Equilibrium; Solutions.
Another extremely important type of reaction is an oxidation-reduction reaction. Sometimes called a redox reaction, an oxidation-reduction reaction occurs during the transfer of electrons. The rusting of iron is an example of an oxidation-reduction reaction; so too is combustion. Indeed, combustion reactions—in which oxygen produces energy so rapidly that a flame or even an explosion results—are an important subset of oxidation-reduction reactions.
Reactions that form water, solids, or gases
Another type of reaction is an acid-base reaction, in which an acid is mixed with a base, resulting in the formation of water along with a salt.
Other reactions form gases, as for instance when water is separated into hydrogen and oxygen. Similarly, heating calcium carbonate (limestone) to make calcium oxide or lime for cement also yields gaseous carbon dioxide: CaCO3(s) + heat —CaO (s) + CO2(g).
There are also reactions that form a solid, such as the one mentioned much earlier, in which solid BaCrO4(s) is formed. Such reactions are called precipitation reactions. But this is also a reaction in an aqueous solution, and there is another product: 2KNO3(aq), or potassium nitrate dissolved in water.
Single and double displacement
The reaction referred to in the preceding paragraph also happens to be an example of another type of reaction, because two anions (negatively charged ions) have been exchanged. Initially K+ and CrO42- were together, and these reacted with a compound in which Ba2+ and NO3-were combined. The anions changed places, an instance of a double-displacement reaction, which is symbolized thus: AB + CD -AD + CB.
It is also possible to have a single-displacement reaction, in which an element reacts with a compound, and one of the elements in the compound is released as a free element. This can be represented symbolically as A + BC —B + AC. Single-displacement reactions often occur with metals and with halogens. For instance, a metal (A) reacts with an acid (BC) to produce hydrogen (B) and a salt (AC).
Combination and decomposition
A synthesis, or combination, reaction is one in which a compound is formed from simpler materials—whether those materials be elements or simple compounds. A basic example of this is the reaction described earlier in relation to chemical equations, when hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water. On the other hand, some extremely complex substances, such as the polymers in plastics and synthetic fabrics such as nylon, also involve synthesis reactions.
When iron rusts (in other words, it oxidizes in the presence of air), this is both an oxidation-reduction and a synthesis reaction. This also represents one of many instances in which the language of science is quite different from everyday language. If a piece of iron—say, a railing on a balcony—rusts due to the fact that the paint has peeled off, it would seem from an unscientific standpoint that the iron has “decomposed.” However, rust (or rather, metal oxide) is a more complex substance than the iron, so this is actually a synthesis or combination reaction.
A true decomposition reaction occurs when a compound is broken down into simpler compounds, or even into elements. When water is subjected to electrolysis such that the hydrogen and oxygen are separated, this is a decomposition reaction. The fermentation of grapes to make wine is also a form of decomposition.
And then, of course, there are the processes that normally come to mind when we think of “decomposition”: the decay or rotting of a formerly living thing. This could also include the decay of something, such as an item of food, made from a formerly living thing. In such instances, an organic substance is eventually broken down through a number of processes, most notably the activity of bacteria, until it ultimately becomes carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and other elements that are returned to the environment.
Some other parameters
Obviously, there are numerous ways to classify chemical reactions. Just to complicate things a little more, they can also be identified as to whether they produce heat (exothermic) or absorb heat (endothermic). Combustion is clearly an example of an exothermic reaction, while an endothermic reaction can be exemplified by the process that takes place in a cold pack. Used for instance to prevent swelling on an injured ankle, a cold pack contains an ampule that absorbs heat when broken.Still another way to identify chemical reactions is in terms of the phases of matter involved.
We have already seen that some reactions form gases, some solids, and some yield water as one of the products. If reactants in one phase of matter produce a substance or substances in the same phase (liquid, solid, or gas), this is called a homogeneous reaction. On the other hand, if the reactants are in different phases of matter, or if they produce a substance or substances that are in a different phase, this is called a heterogeneous reaction.
An example of a homogeneous reaction occurs when gaseous nitrogen combines with oxygen, also a gas, to produce nitrous oxide, or “laughing gas.” Similarly, nitrogen and hydrogen combine to form ammonia, also a gas. But when hydrogen and oxygen form water, this is a heterogeneous reaction. Likewise, when a metal undergoes an oxidation-reduction reaction, a gas and a solid react, resulting in a changed form of the metal, along with the production of new gases.
Finally, a chemical reaction can be either reversible or irreversible. Much earlier, we described how wood experiences combustion, resulting in the production of ash. This is clearly an example of an irreversible reaction. The atoms in the wood and the air that oxidized it have not been destroyed, but it would be impossible to put the ash back together to make a piece of wood. By contrast, the formation of water by hydrogen and oxygen is reversible by means of electrolysis.
Keeping it all straight
The different classifications of reactions discussed above are clearly not mutually exclusive; they simply identify specific aspects of the same thing. This is rather like the many physical characteristics that describe a person: gender, height, weight, eye color, hair color, race, and so on. Just because someone is blonde, for instance, does not mean that the person cannot also be brown-eyed; these are two different parameters that are more or less independent.
On the other hand, there is some relation between these parameters in specific instances: for example, females over six feet tall are rare, simply because women tend to be shorter than men. But there are women who are six feet tall, or even considerably taller. In the same way, it is unlikely that a reaction in an aqueous solution will be a combustion reaction—yet it does happen, as for instance when potassium reacts with water.
Studying Chemical Reactions
Several aspects or subdisciplines of chemistry are brought to bear in the study of chemical reactions. One is stoichiometry (stoy-kee-AH-muh-tree), which is concerned with the relationships among the amounts of reactants and products in a chemical reaction. The balancing of the chemical equation for water earlier in this essay is an example of basic stoichiometry.
Chemical thermodynamics is the area of chemistry that addresses the amounts of heat and other forms of energy associated with chemical reactions. Thermodynamics is also a branch of physics, but in that realm, it is concerned purely with physical processes involving heat and energy. Likewise physicists study kinetics, associated with the movement of objects. Chemical kinetics, on the other hand, involves the study of the collisions between molecules that produce a chemical reaction, and is specifically concerned with the rates and mechanisms of reaction.
Speeding up a chemical reaction
Essentially, a chemical reaction is the result of collisions between molecules. According to this collision model, if the collision is strong enough, it can break the chemical bonds in the reactants, resulting in a rearrangement of the atoms to form products. The more the molecules collide, the faster the reaction. Increase in the numbers of collisions can be produced in two ways: either the concentrations of the reactants are increased, or the temperature is increased. In either case, more molecules are colliding.
Increases of concentration and temperature can be applied together to produce an even faster reaction, but rates of reaction can also be increased by use of a catalyst, a substance that speeds up the reaction without participating in it either as a reactant or product. Catalysts are thus not consumed in the reaction. One very important example of a catalyst is an enzyme, which speeds up complex reactions in the human body. At ordinary body temperatures, these reactions are too slow, but the enzyme hastens them along. Thus human life can be said to depend on chemical reactions aided by a wondrous form of catalyst.
KEY TERMS
Acid-base reaction: A chemical reaction in which an acid is mixed with a base, resulting in the formation of water along with a salt.
Aqueous solutions: Amixture of water and any substance that is solvent in it.
Balanced equation: A chemical equation in which the numbers of atoms in the reactants and those in the product are equal. In the course of balancing an equation, coefficients may need to be applied to one or more of the chemical species involved; however, the actual formulas of the species cannot be changed.
Catalyst: A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without participating in it either as a reactant or product. Catalysts are thus not consumed in the reaction.
Chemical equation: A representation of a chemical reaction in which the chemical symbols on the left stand for the reactants, and those on the right for the product or products. On paper, a chemical equation looks much like a mathematical one; however, instead of an equals sign, a chemical equation uses an arrow to show the direction of the reaction.
Chemical kinetics: the study of the rate at which chemical reactions occur.
Chemical reaction: A process whereby the chemical properties of a substance are changed by a rearrangement of the atoms in the substance.
Chemical species: A generic term used for any substance studied in chemistry—whether it be an element, compound, mixture, atom, molecule, ion, and so forth.
Chemical thermodynamics:The study of the amounts of heat and other forms of energy associated with chemical reactions.
Coefficient: A number used to indicate the presence of more than one unit—typically, more than one molecule— of a chemical species in a chemical equation. For instance, 2H2O indicates two water molecules. (Note that 1 is never used as a coefficient.)
Collision model: The theory that chemical reactions are the result of collisions between molecules that are strong enough to break bonds in the reactants, resulting in a rearrangement of atoms to form a product or products.
Decomposition reaction: A chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down into simpler compounds, or even into elements. This is the opposite of a synthesis or combination reaction.
Double-displacement reaction: A chemical reaction in which the partners in two compounds change places. This can be symbolized as AB + CD —AD + CB. Compare single-displacement reaction.
Endothermic: A term describing a chemical reaction in which heat is absorbed or consumed.
Exothermic: A term describing a chemical reaction in which heat is produced.
Heterogeneous: A term describing a chemical reaction in which the reactants are in different phases of matter (liquid, solid, or gas), or one in which the product is in a different phase from that of the reactants.
Homogeneous: A term describing a chemical reaction in which the reactants and the product are all in the same phase of matter (liquid, solid, or gas).
Oxidation-reduction reaction:A chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons.
Precipitation reaction: A chemical reaction in which a solid is formed.
Product: The substance or substances that result from a chemical reaction.
Reactant: A substance that interacts with another substance in a chemical reaction, resulting in the formation of a product.
Single-displacement reaction: A chemical reaction in which an element reacts with a compound, and one of the elements in the compound is released as a free element. This can be represented symbolically as A + BC 4B + AC. Compare double-displacement reaction.
Stoichiometry: The study of the relationships among the amounts of reactants and products in a chemical reaction. Producing a balanced equation requires application of stoichiometry (pronounced “stoy-kee-AH-muh-tree”).
Synthesis or combination reaction: A chemical reaction in which a compound is formed from simpler materials—either elements or simple compounds. It is the opposite of a decomposition reaction.
Unbalanced equation: A chemical equation in which the sum of atoms in the product or products does not equal the sum of atoms in the reactants. Initial observations of a chemical reaction usually produce an unbalanced equation, which needs to be analyzed and corrected (by the use of coefficients) to yield a balanced equation.
