Ranofer (fl. c. 24th century b.c.e.) To Sabni (fl. 22nd century b.c.e.)

Priestly official of the Fifth Dynasty

He served several pharaohs as a prophet of the gods ptah and sokar. His famous statues are in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Life-sized and fashioned out of painted limestone, the statues were found in his saqqara tomb and vividly display the artistic skills of the era.

Raphia

This is a site in southwestern Palestine, near modern Gaza, where ptolemy iv philopator (r. 221-205 b.c.e.) defeated antiochus iii of Syria. Both sides used elephant cavalries in this battle. The Egyptians proved triumphant by using the heavier African elephant in the engagement, which was decisive for Egypt’s survival.

Rastau (1)

This was a term used in early Egyptian historical periods to designate part of the necropolis of saqqara near memphis.

rastau (2)

This was the name given to small passages built into pyramids and tombs, extending some distance in the Great pyramid at giza, erected by khufu (Cheops; r. 2551-2528 b.c.e.). They were once believed to be vents for air circulation, but recent explorations of these passages by small robots indicate that they do not appear to reach the outer walls. The passages may have had a spiritual purpose, serving as an entrance to the realms beyond the grave.

Rawer (fl. 25th century b.c.e.)

Priestly official of the Fifth Dynasty

He served kakai (Neferirkare) (r. 2446-2426 b.c.e.) as a priest of min and as a ritual master. Rawer was termed an indicator of the secret words of the gods, believed to have great magical powers. His tomb, southwest of the Great sphinx in saqqara, contained a stela that records that this priest was accidentally struck by Kakai during a religious ceremony but sustained no injuries. This site is a vast complex of 20 alcoves and 25 wall corridors. A portrait of Rawer was included in the decorations, depicting him in a loincloth, with a pyramidal apron and a badge across his chest and shoulders.
Re He was the major solar deity of the ancient Egyptians, whose cult at heliopolis, or hermopolis magna, developed in the Early Dynastic Period. Re was the most popular solar deity of Egypt, and his cult incorporated many of the attributes and mythology of various other temples. Re appeared on the ancient pyramidal stone in the Phoenix Hall at Heliopolis, as a symbol of rebirth and regeneration. Re’s cult concerned itself with material benefits: health, children, virility, and the destiny of the nation. Representing the sun, the cult was rooted in the nurturing aspects of nature and light.
The sun was called Khepri at dawn, Re at noon, and atum at night. As Atum the god was depicted as a human with a double crown upon his head. As Khepri he took the form of the sacred beetle. As Re the god was depicted as a man with the head of a falcon (or hawk), surmounted by the cobra and the uraeus. He was also identified with horus, then called Re-Horakhty, Re-Horus. In this form he was the horizon dweller. At dawn Re came across the sky in his solar boat, called the “Boat of Millions of Years,” accompanied by lesser divinities of his train.
The god Re appeared in the form of Atum in the creation myths taught at Heliopolis. ptah is supposed to have shaped the egg out of which Re arose. In the other cosmogonic or creation tales of Egypt, Re was depicted as rising as a lotus flower from the waters of the abyss. In turn he begat geb, the earth, and nut, the sky. Of these were born osiris, set, isis, and nephthys. The waxing and waning of the moon was the monthly restoration of the eye of re by the god Thoth. This eye, alongside the eye of horus, became one of the holiest symbols of ancient Egypt.
Re was the Living King, as osiris was the Dead King. During the Old Kingdom the concept of the kings assuming the powers of Re took root. The kings became the physical sons of the deity, a concept that would remain constant throughout Egyptian history. Even Alexander iii the great after he conquered Egypt with his Greek armies journeyed to the oasis of siwa in the Libyan desert to be adopted as a son of the god Re and be given the powers of the true kings of the Nile. During the New Kingdom the god amun was united to Re to become the most powerful deity in Egypt.


Re, Eye of

A pendant considered powerful and used as a sign of divine protection, the goddess isis was associated with the Eye of Re in one cultic tradition, and the deities buto and hathor assumed that mystical form. The Eye of Re was considered a spiritual entity that perfected the will of the god Re.

rebels of Egypt

They were a select group of native Egyptians who tried to unite their fellow countrymen in revolts against foreign occupiers of the Nile Valley. In all of these rebellions the Egyptians failed to support these self-proclaimed leaders. Most of the rebels were from thebes, the traditional area for the rise of warrior princes over the centuries. narmer, montuhotep ii, and ‘ahmose had risen in their turns to march northward and to cleanse the land of alien stain. There were no such warriors in Egypt in the later eras, and no clans were able to amass armies in upper Egypt to repel foreign intruders. still, certain individuals began rebellions that were shortlived but reflected the ancient spirit of the Nile valley.
amyrtaios, who ruled a small area of the Delta in the reign of artaxerxes i (465-424 b.c.e.), survived the Persian assault on inaros, a prince of heliopolis. Inaros killed a royal prince of persia in a battle and was hunted down and captured by General megabyzus. He was then crucified at the command of the slain prince’s royal mother. Amyrtaios was not pursued during the inaros episode and remained in control of his small domain.
The third rebel against the Persians was khababash, reportedly the successor to nectanebo ii (r. 360-343 b.c.e.). He was not successful, but his leadership and his desire for a free Egypt was repeatedly commemorated over the years by the Egyptians and by ptolemy i soter (r. 304-284 b.c.e.) on the satrap stela.
Four rebels raised a call to arms during the ptolemaic Dynasty, the line of Greeks who claimed Egypt following the death of Alexander [iii] the great in 323 b.c.e. charonnophis and hor-wen-nefer, Thebans, each started rebellions in the reign of ptolemy iv philopater (221-205 b.c.e.) but were easily defeated.
In the reign of ptolemy v epiphanes (205-180 b.c.e.), two other rebels tried to gain the support of the Egyptians. probably their fellow countrymen recognized the fact that the Greeks would not allow the ptolemaic line to fall, and an independent Egypt faced enemies, including the seleucids and the growing power called Rome. ankhwennofre led a small group for a time but failed. haronophis faced the Greeks and also met defeat.

recensions

An evolving form of mortuary and religious literature in Egypt that demonstrates the advances made in the burial rites and semimagical rituals concerning the dead, these works are variations of the topic of the dead. Written in hieroglyphs, the recensions demonstrated the ongoing changes made in such literature concerning death and the realms beyond the grave. They are divided into three historical categories.
On (Heliopolis) Recensions—the Heliopolitan form that developed c. 3300 b.c.e., probably variations of even earlier texts. This form was discovered in old Kingdom (2575-2134 b.c.e.) tombs, copied on coffins and sarcophagi.
Theban Recensions—the variations started in the first half of the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1307 b.c.e.), written in hieroglyphs on papyri and divided into titled chapters. Vignettes were also added to personalize the texts. illustrations were then included, making it necessary to abbreviate or omit some chapters. The original Theban Recensions contained 180 chapters, although no extant papyrus has all of them. These reproduced the historical traditions of the priests at heliopolis, herak-leopolis, abydos, and thebes. Internal references link the Theban version to the First Dynasty reign of “Semti,” probably semerkhet. Other references date to the reign of menkaure (2490-2472 b.c.e.) in the Fourth Dynasty. A later form of the Theban Recensions was started in the Twentieth Dynasty (1196-1070 b.c.e.)
Saite—a series of recensions started during the Twenty-fourth Dynasty (724-712 b.c.e.) or perhaps later and popular only in the area of sais in the Delta.

Records of Restorations of Royal Mummies

This is a document dating to the Twenty-first Dynasty (1040-945 b.c.e.), when herihor and other high priests of amun began the process of salvaging the royal remains of the pharaohs being ravaged by grave robbers. The first two mummies were moved to a safe location at deir el-bahri. Some of the most famous pharaohs of the New Kingdom and royalties of later periods were found there. A second cache was in the tomb of amenhotep ii in the valley of the kings.

Redesiyeh

It was a temple site built by seti i (r. 1306-1290 b.c.e.) some five miles north of modern edfu in upper Egypt. The temple contains inscriptions concerning the accomplishments of seti i’s reign.

Redji (Redyzet) (fl. 27th century b.c.e.)

Royal woman of the Third Dynasty

She was probably a daughter of djoser (r. 2630-2611 b.c.e.). A statue of Princess Redji was discovered in saqarra and is now in the Turin Museum. Shown elaborately dressed in a pose, Redji’s statue demonstrates the growing artistic skills of that early period.

Reed Fields

A sacred designation for the deceased Egyptians, fulfilling the requirements of all paradises, having water, cool breezes, and fertile tracts, the Reed Fields were sometimes depicted as a group of verdant islands. All of the mortal occupations and recreations were revived there. The dead had to perform agricultural labors, tasks assigned to the SHABTI figurines that accompanied the deceased. The topic of the dead used symbols of bound reeds to illustrate the Reed Fields. See also paradise.

Re’emkuy (fl. 24th century b.c.e.)

Royal prince of the Fifth Dynasty

He was the eldest son of izezi (r. 2388-2356 b.c.e.) and the designated heir. Prince Re’emkuy served as a chief lector priest, a scribe of the sacred writings, and as a “Servant of the Throne.” He was also listed as a “Sole Companion of the King.” Dying at a young age, Prince Re’emkuy was buried in the saqqara tomb of a judge, Neferiryetnes. The reliefs and decorations of the mastaba were changed to provide the prince with a suitable resting place.

Rehu-er-djersenb (fl. 20th century b.c.e.)

Official of the Twelfth Dynasty, famous for his tomb reliefs He served amenemhet i (r. 1991-1962 b.c.e.) as chancellor. He was buried in a large mastaba in el-LiSHT, near Amenemhet I’s pyramidal complex. The walls of Rehu-er-djersenb’s tomb contain elaborate reliefs, including one depicting him hunting in the Nile marshes. An abydos stela lists Rehu-er-djesenb’s prominent family, 23 in number. This stela was discovered in 1912.

rekhet

A hieroglyph in the form of a lapwing bird, sometimes listed as rekhyt, the hieroglyph symbolized an entire caste of Egyptians in the era of unification (c. 3000 b.c.e.). This caste was depicted on the scorpion mace-head and on other objects from the unification. The rekhet caste revolted in the Delta during the reign of djoser (2630-2611 b.c.e.) and had to be routed. Djoser is depicted in the step pyramid as crushing them as enemies of a true Egypt. Rekhet birds were winged and crested and used in temple rituals. With other symbols they represented the power of the pharaohs. The bird is depicted as a crested plover (Vanellus vanellus).

Rekhmire (fl. 15th century b.c.e.)

Vizier of the Eighteenth Dynasty

He served tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.). Rekhmire was the son of Neferuhen, a priest of Amun; the grandson of a’ametju, the vizier for hatshepsut (r. 1473-1458 b.c.e.); and the nephew of Useramun, or Woser, who was Tuthmosis Ill’s vizier in the early years of his reign. Tuthmosis III reportedly said of Rekhmire: “There was nothing he did not know.” After Tuthmosis Ill’s death, Rekhmire was also vizier for amenhotep ii (r. 1427-1401 b.c.e.) but fell out of favor.
Rekhmire’s tomb, in the cliff areas of the western shore of thebes, was never used. The burial chamber was incomplete and one wall was empty of reliefs. The figures of Rekhmire in other parts of the tomb were damaged. The tomb, however, was decorated with illustrations of the daily activities and offices of the vizier and recorded the personal views of Tuthmosis III concerning the ideals and aspirations that are appropriate to the office of vizier. The depiction of the ceremonies for the installation of a vizier is complete, and there are other scenes portraying tributes, trade, and daily life, as well as funerary rites. Rekhmire’s wife, Meryt, is also depicted.

Rekh-nesu

This was the term for the companion of the pharaoh, also recorded as Rekh-neset. The Rekh-nesu was “one Whom the King Knows,” originally a title given to counselors who conducted the affairs of state. In time it was bestowed as an honor on an outstanding official. The title gave such an individual rank, status, and supposed free access to the pharaohs.

religion

It was the cultic and spiritual system incorporated into Egyptian life over the centuries. The ancient Egyptians had no word or single hieroglyph to denote religion as it is viewed in the modern age. Their spiritual ideals permeated every aspect of their lives to the point that such traditions and practices were considered a natural element of existence. The Greeks and other visitors described the Egyptians as the most religious people on earth, but the concept of organized worship as it is known today falls short of the devotion and ardor displayed on the Nile, in the midst of a vast pantheon of competing deities and priestly factions.
Predynastic cultural sequences give evidence of one of the earliest inclinations of Egyptian religion—the belief in an afterlife. Animals were carefully buried alongside humans in the prehistoric eras, and the color green, representing resurrection and regeneration, figured prominently in grave rites. Fertility goddesses from the Nagada I and II cultural sequences attest to the rudiments of cultic practices. A young male fertility god was also evident, as were indications of the emerging rites of various deities—neith, min, horus, among others. amulets, slate palettes, block figures with religious associations, and the Horus and set symbols were also found.
With the unification of Egypt in the Early Dynastic Period, the various local deities assumed regional importance. Horus became the patron of the kings, alongside Set, in the eastern Delta. ptah became the principal deity of memphis, the first capital, and the cult of re flourished at heliopolis. sokar was evident in royal ceremonies, according to the palermo stone and other documents from that era. nekhebet and wadjet had already been designated as the patrons of upper and Lower Egypt. wepwawet, thoth, anubis, and the apis bull were accepted as part of the Egyptian pantheon.
The royal cult was a special aspect of religion from the early period, associated with Horus and osiris. The concept of the king as intermediary between the divine and the human was firmly in place by the time of the old Kingdom (2575-2134 b.c.e.). From the Fifth Dynasty pharaohs were addressed “the son of ‘re.’” Dead rulers were identified with osiris.
festivals and rituals played a significant part in the early cultic practices in Egypt. Every festival celebrated a sacred or mythical time of cosmogonic importance (honoring the souls of pe and souls of nekhen, for example) and upheld religious teachings and time-honored beliefs. such festivals renewed the awareness of the divine and symbolized the powers of renewal and the sense of the “other” in human affairs.
From the Early Dynastic period a tendency to henotheism is evident in Egypt, especially in hymns and didactic literature. creation was explained in complex cosmogonic texts, and the presence of several, conflicting explanations of how the world began did not present a problem for Egyptians.
Egyptians did not demand a system of logical development of their religion. All that was necessary were the observances of the cultic rites and the festivals so that the people could mirror the divine order as interpreted by the priests. while the cults and celebrations represented regional or national preoccupation with particular deities, the individual Egyptians were quite free to worship a god according to their own inclinations. The people exercised free will in this regard, which led to an awareness of social and religious obligations, especially in the observance of the spirit of ma’at.
surrounded by a variety of gods, Egyptians still maintained belief in one supreme deity who was self-existent, immortal, invisible, omniscient, the maker of heaven and earth and the Underworld, tuat. The various gods assumed the supreme rank as the sole deity when addressed by their particular worshiper.
Re was credited with having announced that all men were the equal recipients of sunlight, air, water, and harvests. Re also instructed all men to live as brothers and to think on the West. amenti, the symbol of the grave and the afterlife. Amun was believed capable of nurturing and protecting each Egyptian as an individual while he also sustained the creatures of the field and the river and led the nation’s military and cultural advances.
Religious beliefs were not codified in doctrines, tenets, or theologies. Most Egyptians did not long to explore the mystical or esoteric aspects of theology. The celebrations were sufficient, because they provided a profound sense of the spiritual and aroused an emotional response on the part of adorers. Hymns to the gods, processions, and cultic celebrations provided a continuing infusion of spiritual idealism into the daily life of the people.
In the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b.c.e.) following the fall of the old Kingdom, the local or regional gods reassumed importance because of the lack of a centralized government. The god of the capital region usually assumed leadership over the other gods and assimilated their cults. Although Re, Horus, Osiris, and isis held universal sway, and ptah remained popular, other deities began to assume rank. montu of hermon-this, Amun of Thebes, sobek in the faiyum, and other local deities drew worshipers. The coffin texts emerged at this time, making available to nonroyal personages the mortuary rites once exclusive to the kings.
When montuhotep ii put an end to the Herak-leopolitan royal line in 2040 b.c.e., ushering in the Middle Kingdom, the religious life of Egypt was altered. Montuhotep and his successors strengthened the solar cult, which had implications for the royal cults as well, the king being the model of the creator god on earth. Also during the Middle Kingdom abydos became the focal point of osiris Mysteries, and pilgrims flocked to the city. osiris was identified with the dead pharaoh, the ruler of the realm of the dead. Those judged as righteous by osiris and his underworld companions were entitled to paradise.
The Second Intermediate Period (1640-1550 b.c.e.) did not have a tremendous impact on the religious life of the nation because the hyksos, who dominated the Delta regions, and the Thebans, who controlled upper Egypt, stayed constant in their observances. To enhance their legitimacy the Hyksos and their Asiatic allies were quick to assume the cultic observances of the previous kings. When ‘ahmose ousted the Hyksos, ushering in the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.), the royal cult again predominated, but alongside it Amun, the god of Thebes, assumed importance. The brief ‘amarna period, in which akhenaten tried to erase the Amunite cult and replace it with that of the god aten, was too short-lived to have had lasting impact. Akhenaten, Aten, and the temporary capital at el-’Amarna were obliterated by later kings. horemhab (r. 1319-1307 b.c.e.) went so far as to date his reign, which followed the ‘Amarna episode, from the close of amenhotep iii’s reign, so as to eradicate all traces of Akhenaten and his three successors.
The Ramessid kings upheld the royal cult and the established pantheon. per-ramesses, the new capital in the eastern Delta, was a great conglomeration of temples and stages for cultic festivals. until the New Kingdom collapsed in 1070 b.c.e., the spiritual traditions were maintained, and later eras saw again the same religious patterns along the Nile. During the Third intermediate period and the Late period, religious fervor in the Nile Valley remained constant but was dependent upon nome enthusiasm rather than state-operated cultic observances. The ptolemaic period stressed Greek heritage but allowed the native Egyptians to maintain their traditional forms of worship and even tried to unite the Greek and Egyptian factions by forming new deities that were a combination of the traditions of both nations.
one last aspect of Egyptian religion that needs to be understood is the use of animal figures or animal heads in the portrayals of the divine beings of Egypt. The various depictions of such creatures in the ruins of the temples and shrines have given rise to exotic interpretations and to esoteric explanations of those images. The current understanding of the use of such animals is that these creatures were viewed as theophanies, images that were devised to represent the gods in different manifestations or forms. The Egyptians lived close to nature, surrounded by animals, birds, insects, serpents, and fish. some of these were used as representations of the local nome gods before the unification of upper and Lower Egypt in 3000 b.c.e. Serving as the local fetish or totem, they disappeared or were absorbed into the cults of the various gods in time. The Egyptians did not worship animals or serpents but relied upon their familiar forms to demonstrate what they believed to be spiritual truths.

ren

The ancient Egyptian word for name, it was considered vital to an individual’s identity on earth and in the afterlife. A nameless being could not enter into the realms of the gods—in fact, could not exist at all. The duty of each family member, therefore, was to perpetuate the names of their ancestors in cultic ceremonies. The names of the deceased were recited aloud each day, long after they had been buried.
Those who could afford to do so hired mortuary priests to recite the daily liturgies in honor of the dead, so as to insure eternal bliss. The dead were also believed to benefit from the recitation of the royal or divine names, which made the kings and the gods happy to intercede on their behalf.

Re’neb (Kakau, Nubnefer) (d. 2649 b.c.e.)

Second ruler of the Second Dynasty

He was the successor of hotepsekhemwy, the founder of the line, who ruled from 2700 b.c.e. until his death. He is called Kakau or Nubnefer in some king lists and is denoted as Kaichan by manetho. His name meant “Re Is the Lord,” and he may have been a usurper. His seals were in saqqara and on a trade route near erment. Re’neb is given credit for aiding the apis bull cult in Memphis and the mnevis cult at heliopolis. He is also credited with introducing the sacred ram cult of mendes. His SEREKH was discovered on a granite stela in abydos. His tomb is believed to have been situated under the causeway of unis’s funerary complex in saqqara.

Renenet (Renenutet)

An Egyptian goddess of good fortune, she was considered an incarnation of isis as the patroness of harvests. she was also worshiped as the celestial cobra that nursed the pharaohs. A temple dedicated to Renenet was erected in the faiyum during the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b.c.e.). She was also associated with the cults of hathor and other goddesses concerning harvests, fate, happiness, and childbirth.

Renni (fl. 16th century b.c.e.)

Mayoral official of the Eighteenth Dynasty

He served amenhotep i (r. 1525-1504 b.c.e.) as the mayor of elkab and as overseer of priests. His tomb in thebes is famous for its reliefs, depicting agricultural scenes, festivals, banquets, and funerary rituals.

Renpet (1)

A goddess of the Egyptian year, and the Egyptian word for year, Renpet was very popular in the late periods of Egypt. she was depicted as a woman wearing various symbols of crops and harvests. In some eras she was associated with the solar cult of sopdu, called sirius, the Dogstar, by the Greeks. sopdu signaled the coming inundation of the Nile each year.

Renpet (2)

The Egyptian hieroglyphic sign denoting the regnal year of a pharaoh, the renpet sign appears to have been introduced in the reign of djet, the third ruler of the First Dynasty (2920-2770 b.c.e.). Such a sign allowed significant annual events to be recorded accurately for each reign. The palermo stone contains the renpet hieroglyph as a separation symbol to compartmentalize information about the reigns of the pharaohs. See also king lists.

Reptile charmer

This was an occupation of the ancient Egyptians and one that is still in demand on the modern Nile. One such noted reptile charmer served at deir el-medina, the settlement of the workers in the tombs of the valley of the kings. Others lived in villages and served entire areas. still others were stationed at mines and quarries.
The reptile charmers normally conducted themselves as priests, physicians, scribes, or laborers but were on call when venomous snakes or scorpions posed a threat to the local populations. They were required to be on hand at all construction sites. These charmers were adept at handling the deadly reptiles, and many had been stung enough times to have built levels of immunity in their systems.

Reputneb (fl. 24th century b.c.e.)

Royal woman of the Fifth Dynasty

She was a consort of niuserre (r. 2416-2392 b.c.e.), sharing the rank with Queen khentikus. Reputneb was not the mother of the heir.

Repyt

A lioness deity of Egypt, popular in many historical periods, her temple at athribis was once the same size as the temple of hathor in dendereh. This shrine was erected in the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b.c.e.). ptolemy ix soter ii (116-107, 88-81 b.c.e.) added to this temple.

reserve heads

Ancient Egyptian busts created as portraits of the deceased, the heads frequently had broken ears and marks of scoring. It is believed that the damaged ears were the accidental results of the breaking of the molds, which were made out of linen and thin plaster. The damage could have taken place at that instant. For some reason the heads were not repaired or restored. Reserve heads were placed outside of the tombs, although some were found in the burial chambers or at the bottom of grave shafts. They date to the Fourth Dynasty (2575-2465 b.c.e.), used mostly in giza, abu-sir, saqqara, and dashur. More than 30 such heads, exquisitely portraying the deceased, have survived over the centuries. They were used as spare heads if the corpses needed replacements, and they identified the graves for wandering kas, or astral spirits set free in the grave.

Reshef

He was an Amorite war deity brought into Egypt during the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1307 b.c.e.), probably as a result of the Tuthmossid campaigns in the Near East territories. Accepted by the Egyptians but not popular, Reshef was depicted as a warrior wearing a white crown and carrying a mace and shield.

Restoration Stela

This monument dating to the reign of tut’ankhamun (1333-1323 b.c.e.), describes the ruined state of Egypt as a result of the reign of akhen-aten (1353-1335 b.c.e.) at amarna. Both the chaos in Egypt’s temples and the precarious positions of the armed forces abroad are depicted in this stela.

resurrection

It was the continuing Egyptian belief that souls never died but achieved renewed existence in eternity when mortal remains were prepared and placed in appropriate tomb sites. Every religious ceremony conducted in connection with the funerary and mortuary rites was designed to foster that belief. in the cult of osiris an important aspect was the god’s resurrection and ascension into heaven, with the promise that all mortals could share in his eternal bliss after being judged by him beyond the grave. This concept of resurrection had a positive and profound element in Egyptian life. The people of the Nile Valley held firmly to the belief that souls renewed their existence in eternity, where death could not touch them again. Funerary rituals and texts reassured the Egyptians of the transitory nature of life and death, events that the individual could survive.
Ret she was an ancient Egyptian goddess, considered the consort of re and the mother of all the gods. Called Re-et in some lists, she was considered the female sun. She was worshiped in heliopolis and was depicted normally as a woman wearing horns and a solar disk.

Rhind Papyrus

This is a mathematical text copied by a Theban scribe, probably during the reign of apophis (c. 1585-1553 b.c.e.), the hyksos contemporary of the Seventeenth Dynasty (1640-1550 b.c.e.). The papyrus deals with fractions, calculus, and other mathematical processes known at the time. The Rhind Papyrus also contains material concerning science and wisdom literature. it is possible that the present form resulted from yet another copy made by a scribe in the reign of amenhotep i (1525-1504 b.c.e.). Sometimes called the ‘Ah-mose Papyrus, it was purchased by Alexander Henry Rhind in 1858, hence the name.

Rib-Hadda (Rib-Addi) (fl. 14th century b.c.e.)

Ruler of ancient Byblos, now a city in modern Lebanon Rib-Hadda was in power during the reign of akhenaten (1353-1335 b.c.e.), serving as an ally of Egypt. This king wrote to Akhenaten, warning him about abdiashirta of Amurru, a city-state in the region. Rib-Hadda was being attacked by Abdiashirta and was begging Akhenaten for troops and grain. He suffered exile from byblos when no Egyptian aid was forthcoming. See also amarna letters.

Rishi pattern

This is a term for the feathered design used on the sarcophagi of the Seventeenth (1640-1550 b.c.e.) and the Eighteenth (1550-1307 b.c.e.) Dynasties. The pattern imitated the wings of the god horus, thus enfolding the deceased in the sarcophagus within the protective power of the deity. Theban tombs from these dynastic periods have the rishi pattern evident on the sarcophagus.

rising sun

A sacred symbol in Egypt, associated with the horizon, the rising sun was displayed in an amulet that was deemed powerful in conveying life and resurrection beyond the grave. The symbol of Harmachis, Hor on the Horizon, was the amulet that depicted a sun rising between two mountains of hills. it was popular in mortuary rituals.

Rite of the House of Morning

This was a solemn ceremony conducted each day in ancient Egyptian palaces. The pharaoh’s rising was a great event. priests and courtiers attended him, ready to assist in bathing and dressing. He washed in water from the local temple lake to symbolize his primordial rebirth, and the water represented the chaotic abyss of the god nun. The king was then anointed, robed, invested with the royal insignias, and praised by priests wearing the masks of the gods horus and thoth. If the king was not in residence at the time, a substitute official or a member of the royal family was given similar honors in his stead. in some eras the king also chewed bits of natron, another symbol of rebirth and resurrection.

Rituals

They were the often elaborate ceremonies conducted throughout all of the historical periods of Egypt as religious, magical, or state displays of power and belief. such ceremonies depicted events taking place in the affairs of humans and the gods. in Egypt, rituals and beliefs were so closely bound that one could not exist without the other.
The temple of the deity was considered not as a material structure but as a horizon, the place where the deity reigned, opening onto the land of glorious light beyond the dawn. festivals and rituals celebrated the sacred cultic traditions, cosmic or historical, of the time when the sacred was manifested. Rituals were religious renewals, the demonstrations of the divine.

River of Heaven

A waterway called the Celestial stream, the celestial River, or the spiritual Nile, the River of Heaven was the counterpart of the actual Nile and was believed to enter the earthly sphere on the elephantine Island, at aswan. The River of Heaven was depicted in the mortuary texts and was associated with the god re’s nightly sojourn. This Nile flowed through the tuat, the land beyond the grave.

Roau (Ro-an, Roen, Ra-an) (fl. 15th century b.c.e.)

Priestly official of the Eighteenth Dynasty He served tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) as the chief steward of amun. Roau was in charge of the mortuary complex of Queen ah’hotep (1), the mother of ‘ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.) and the Eighteenth Dynasty. Queen Ah’hotep’s cult was still active in the reign of Tuthmosis III, and he erected a shrine in her honor. Tuthmosis III donated a tomb to Roau as a reward for his services.

Rodis (Rhodopis) (fl. seventh or sixth century b.c.e.)

Greek woman living in Naukratis, Egypt, called one of the most beautiful women of the world naukratis, founded in the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664-525 b.c.e.), was the residence of Greek merchants and traders on the canopic branch of the Nile. Rodis, a resident of the city, was heralded in legend as one of the most beautiful women of all time. As a result of her charms she was the center of attention and had Greek and Egyptian suitors.
Rome one of the most powerful of the ancient states, Rome emerged from a small, rural community in Italy to conquer most of the Mediterranean world and to bring to an end the long pharaonic history of Egypt in 30 b.c.e.
The first significant involvement of Rome in the affairs of Egypt occurred in 170 b.c.e. when the strife between Egypt and Syria (under King antiochus iv) ended with both sides appealing to the Romans to decide who should be the rightful claimant to the throne. The two candidates were ptolemy viii euergetes ii (the favorite of the Egyptians) and ptolemy vi philometor (the nephew and favorite of Antiochus IV). The Roman senate decided to split the rule of the country, so that Philometor reigned in memphis and Euergetes controlled Alexandria. This state of affairs proved unsatisfactory to the Egyptians, who wasted no time upon Antiochus’s departure back to Syria to rise up against Philometor. Antiochus responded by marching on Egypt with an army. The Egyptians appealed once more to Rome.
The Roman Senate dispatched a three-man commission to Egypt, and in 168 there occurred the famous encounter between Antiochus IV and Papillius Laenas at Eleusis just outside of Alexandria. Laenas gave Antiochus the terms of the senate: the syrians must depart Egypt or there would be war. Laenas then used a stick to draw a circle in the sand around Antiochus’s feet and demanded an answer before he set foot out of the ring. The Syrian agreed to the Senate’s demands, and Ptolemy VI was installed as ruler of all Egypt; Ptolemy VIII was made king of cyrenaica.
Rome now stood as the supreme arbiter of Egyptian affairs. Thus, when ptolemy xii neos dionysius was driven from Egypt in 58 b.c.e. he fled to Rome. After paying extensive bribes and cultivating the political favor of Julius caesar, Ptolemy XII returned to Egypt and was reinstated with the assistance of three Roman legions. The remainder of his reign was as a virtual client of Rome, and Ptolemy left provision in his will for the Romans to have oversight over the transition of power to his children, cleopatra vii and ptolemy xiii.
The bitter political struggle between Cleopatra and her brother went largely unnoticed by the Romans owing to their own civil war. In 48 b.c.e., however, following the defeat of pompey the Great by Julius Caesar at the battle of Pharsalus, Pompey fled to Egypt and what he hoped would be the sanctuary of the court of Ptolemy. The Roman general was immediately assassinated by a cabal of Egyptian courtiers, and his head was given as a gift to caesar upon the dictator’s arrival in Alexandria.
Caesar decided the dispute between Ptolemy and Cleopatra in favor of the queen, and Ptolemy died in the fighting that followed. In a famous romance, Caesar and Cleopatra became lovers and produced ptolemy xv cae-sarion. Following Caesar’s assassination in 44 b.c.e., Cleopatra established a relationship with Marc antony. Their political and personal alliance culminated in the war with Caesar’s nephew, Octavian (the future Augustus) and the battle of actium in 31 b.c.e. The defeat of the Egyptian fleet and army opened the door for the Roman conquest of Egypt. cleopatra committed suicide in famed fashion by stinging herself with an asp, and Marc Antony died on his own sword. Octavian, the future Augustus, entered Alexandria on August 1, 30 b.c.e. Henceforth, until the Arab conquest in 641 c.e., Egypt remained a territory of the Roman Empire and then the Byzantine Empire.

Romis

This was an Egyptian term for “true humans,” also called piromis. These were the intellectual or artistic members of the Egyptian society, as contrasted with the alien or peasant classes of the various nomes or provinces.

Ropes

Essential tools and elements in Egyptian life, termed cordage in some instances, strings, twine, cable, or ropes were fashioned by twisting or braiding fibers into a line that could be tied or used to bear weights or stresses. Most Egyptian ropes were s-twisted to the right. Three s-twitched strands formed a z-twisted cord. They were made from the papyrus plant (Cyperus papyrus), halfa grass (Desmostachya bipinnata), the dom palm (Hyphaene thebaica), and the date palm (Phoenix dactilif-era), along with others. The halfa grass was most common. These ropes were used in the construction of the spirit boat discovered in the pyramid pits of khufu (Cheops; r. 2551-2528 b.c.e.). The Egyptians were masters at rope making.

Roset

This was a site near abydos in Upper Egypt deemed a holy place by Egyptians. cliffs were prominent in the territory, and at Roset there is a cave that was considered to be one of the entrances to the tuat, the land beyond the grave. The proximity of Roset to abydos, the city of the god osiris, may have caused the spiritual designation.

Rosetta Stone

This is a portion of a large black basalt stone stela, measuring three feet, nine inches by two feet and a half inch. The stone is inscribed with 14 lines of hieroglyphs, 32 lines of demotic script, and 54 lines of Greek. it was discovered by a French artillery officer, Lt. P F X. Bouchard, a member of Napoleon I’s forces, in the ruined Fort Julien at Rosetta. This town of Rosetta (Rashid) was in the northern region of the Delta on the western channel of the Nile. The inscriptions discovered on the Rosetta Stone were originally created by the priests of Memphis in the reign of ptolemy v epiphanes (205-180 b.c.e.), commemorating the ruler’s accession and patronage.
when the French surrendered Egypt in the Alexandrian Treaty of 1801, the stone passed to the British under Article 16. work began on deciphering the ancient hieroglyphs, following the efforts of several scholars in previous historical periods. The Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680 c.e.) made contributions in deciphering. Abbe Jean-Jacques Barthelemy identified some cartouches of the ancient pharaohs in 1761.
In 1822, Jean-Francois Champollion of France and Thomas Young of England started the last phases of decipherment of the Rosetta Stone. Young, recognizing the cartouche form, decided that the names of ptolemy and cleopatra could be written in symbols with phonetic values that would correspond to their names in Greek. He managed to assign accurately the correct values to six signs with partially correct values for three more. Young also recognized the direction in which the texts should be read by ascertaining the direction in which birds in the inscriptions were facing.
In 1821, champollion took up the task and published memoirs on the decipherment of both the hieroglyphs and the hieratic form of the Egyptian language. He recognized that some signs were alphabetical, some syllabic, and some determinative. Realizing the link between modern coptic and ancient Egyptian, he mastered coptic. He also established the fact that the Egyptian inscriptions were a translation from the Greek. His work inspired many Egyptologists.

Roy (1) (fl. 15th century b.c.e.)

Financial official of the Eighteenth Dynasty

He served tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) as chief treasurer. An inscription cut into the rocks of serabit el-khadim, dating to Tuthmosis Ill’s 25th regnal year, depicts the pharaoh making a libation to hathor with Roy attending him. An inscription of eight lines praises Tuthmosis iii, and another eight lines of hieroglyphs depict Roy as having been appointed a commander of the army sent to bring back malachite stone. There is a reference to “the sea,” indicating the Mediterranean or Red Sea.

Roy (2) (fl. 13th century b.c.e.)

Temple official of the Nineteenth Dynasty

He served merenptah (r. 1224-1214 b.c.e.) as the high priest of amun. The title became hereditary during Roy’s tenure. He had inherited the office from bakenkhonsu, and both apparently were members of the amenemopet clan.

royal cults

They resulted from the deification of the pharaohs of Egypt, as well as courtiers and certain queens, during their reigns or after their burials. such deified individuals were considered intermediaries between the world of humans and the gods. amenhotep i (r. 1525-1504 b.c.e.), for example, and his mother, ‘ahmose-nefertari, were deified and honored with shrines and temples.
The royal cults were particularly important when associated with mortuary complexes of deceased rulers, many remaining active for centuries after their institution. Such cults were centered at pyramids or tomb sites and were maintained by vast retinues. At times small cities were erected to house the priests and workers involved in the ongoing ceremonies and celebrations. The Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b.c.e.) continued the practice.

royal names

They were the titles employed by the rulers of Egypt from the earliest eras, containing magical and spiritual connotations. The titles were elaborately designed with five elements that denoted the connection of the pharaoh to the gods, to their divine purposes, and to their roles in the nation. The royal names included the following:
Horus name—the first one used, symbolizing the role of the pharaoh as the representative of the god horus on earth. The name was normally written in a SEREKH and established the pharaoh’s right to rule the land.
Nebti name—called the Two Goddesses or Two Ladies title and linking the pharaoh to the patronesses of Upper and Lower Egypt, wadjet and nekhebet, the cobra and the vulture. This was a sign of unification for Egypt. The pharaohs also wore the URAEUS, the royal symbol of the cobra and the vulture, the goddesses protecting the Upper and Lower Kingdoms.
Golden Horus name—called the Bik nub, the depiction of a hawk on a golden symbol, representing the concept that the pharaoh was made of gold. His flesh was actually “the gold of the gods,” the earthly manifestation of the divine.
Nesut-Bit name—also called the Sedge and the Bee, the suten-Bat, a title symbolizing the unity of upper and Lower Egypt under the pharaoh’s rule. The north and south combined to provide the pharaoh with a prenomen or a cartouche name. This was the most important and the most frequently used title. In some inscriptions the appearance of this name alone designated the particular pharaoh. The bee was the symbol of the Delta and Lower Egypt, and the sedge represented upper Egypt.
Son of Re name—called the Si-Re and depicted by the hieroglyphs of the pintail duck and a disk, the duck meaning “son” of the god re, the disk. This was the pharaoh’s actual birth name normally.

Royal Wadi

This was the name given to the desert road from ‘amarna, the capital of akhenaten (r. 1353-1335 b.c.e.) to the tombs of royal family members and court officials in the cliff areas of the region. These tombs were ransacked following Akhenaten’s demise and the abandonment of ‘Amarna. The remains of the royal family members were brought to thebes, and parts of their mortuary regalia were used in the tomb of tut’ankhamun (r. 1333-1323 b.c.e.).

Ruaben (fl. 27th century b.c.e.)

Noble of the Second Dynasty

He served in the reign of ninetjer (c. 2680 b.c.e.). Ruaben’s tomb was constructed in saqqara. Stone fragments bearing his name were discovered in the massive gravesite, and it is possible that Ruaben was buried in the funerary complex of Ninetjer, whose remains and burial chamber have not yet been found.

Rudamon (d. c. 712 b.c.e.)

Ruler of the Twenty-third Dynasty

He reigned at leontopolis from c. 747 b.c.e. until defeated by piankhi (r. 750-712 b.c.e.) of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, the Nubian who invaded Egypt. Rudamon was the son of osorkon iii and Queen tentsai. He succeeded takelot iii, his brother, and his heir was iuput ii. Rudamon built at karnak and medinet habu. His daughter, irbast’udjefru, married peftjau’abast.
Rudamon joined the coalition of rulers that tried to defend the land against the armies of Piankhi. The Egyptians were routed by Piankhi’s Nubians and had to surrender. Rudamon was allowed to remain in Leontopolis as a vassal governor.

Rudjek (fl. 26th century b.c.e.)

Royal mortuary official of the Fourth Dynasty

Rudjek served khufu (Cheops; r. 2551-2528 b.c.e.) as counselor and as the head of the priests who took care of the royal mortuary complex in giza, the site of the Great pyramid of Khufu and those of his successors. Rudjek described himself as a “friend” of Khufu.

Ruia (fl. 14th century b.c.e.)

Father-in-law of Seti I Ruia was the father of Queen tuya, the consort of seti i (r. 1306-1290 b.c.e.). Tuya, a commoner, had married Seti I before his father, ramesses i, was designated by horemhab as heir. Seti I thus became the second ruler of the Nineteenth Dynasty. Ruia was a commander of chariots in the Egyptian army, a force strengthened by Horemhab and expanded by Ramesses I and his successors. Ruia and his wife, Raia, were buried in thebes.

sa

This was the hieroglyph for protection, duplicated in metals and woods to form amulets in ancient Egypt. Formed as a life preserver, the sa was worn around the neck and was a rolled mat design, shaped like an ANKH, or ansate cross. The gods Bes and Tawaret were honored with this symbol. By the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b.c.e.) the sa was used as jewelry, and in the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.) the sign appeared in other designs as well.

sa-ankh

Called “the fluid of life” or “water of life,” also sa-en-ankh, a divine substance derived from the gods re and horus, the sa-ankh was reserved at temples and used in ceremonies held to honor the role of the pharaoh. The ruler became the counterpart of re, the earthly manifestation of the deity, by partaking of “the water of life.” The sa-ankh was also given to pharaohs in the early morning rituals of waking.

Sabef (fl. 28th century b.c.e.)

Official and royal companion of the First Dynasty

He served qa’a (r. c. 2770-2760 b.c.e.) in the royal residence and as a royal counselor. His funerary stela in abydos described his honorary status as a “companion,” a title that indicated he had free access to the pharaoh. See also friend of the king.

Sabni (fl. 22nd century b.c.e.)

Prince and governor of the Sixth Dynasty

He served pepi ii (r. 2246-2152 b.c.e.) as the governor of aswan and was called “the overseer of southern lands.”
Sabni was an hereditary prince of elephantine Island and worked with prince Mekhu, his father. sabni directed the quarry operations for two obelisks, obligated to carve and transport them to heliopolis. With an official named hekaib, Sabni also undertook the punitive expeditions to retrieve the remains of slain Egyptians in nubia (modern Sudan). When he reached the remains of Mekhu, his father, and brought them back to Egypt, sabni was met by a group of priests, embalmers, and mourners sent by pepi ii. sabni and Mekhu were buried in Qubbet el-Hawwa, “the Dome of the Wind,” a necropolis site at aswan. Their tomb has painted scenes, false doors representing each deceased, obelisks, offering tables, and reliefs.

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