Official of the Fourth Dynasty
He served shepseskhaf (r. 2472-2467 b.c.e.) in varying court roles. Ptahshepses was raised in the royal palace and married khama’at, the daughter of Shepseskhaf. He was buried in saqqara, and the false door of his mastaba gives an account of his career.
Ptahshepses (2) (fl. 25th century b.c.e.)
Official of the Fifth Dynasty
He served sahure (r. 2458-2446 b.c.e.) as superintendent of royal works. Ptahshepses’ mastaba was discovered in abusir, near Sahure’s pyramidal complex. This tomb had an entryway, a colonnaded court with 20 pillars, a portico, and a hall with niches. Portraits of Ptahshepses and his wife are part of the decorations. Two officials in the 50th year of the reign of ramesses ii (1290-1224 b.c.e.) entered this tomb and left graffiti on the walls.
Ptah-Sokar-Osiris figurines
They were tomb images prized for magical powers and designs and used as SHABTIS. Fashioned normally out of wood, the figures were painted or gilded and then fastened to rectangular bases. These bases had two cavities, one in front and one at the side. The front cavity held a small piece of the deceased, which was then covered by the hawk-like sokar figure. The side cavity held written prayers. The god ptah was the guardian of all created substance, and osiris and Sokar were patrons of the deceased of Egypt.
Ptolemaic script it was the hieroglyphic form (demotic) used in the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b.c.e.), instituted by that dynasty. The form was characterized by letters or signs well shaped and placed in the epigraphic or inscription style.
Ptolemais (1) (fl. fourth century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Thirtieth Dynasty
She was the consort of nectanebo i (r. 380-362 b.c.e.) and the daughter of an Athenian mercenary general named khabrias, who was in Egypt serving Hakoris (r. 393-380 b.c.e.). Ptolemais probably married Nectanebo I when he was a general of Egypt’s armies, known then as Nakhtnebef. She was the mother of teos.
Ptolemais (2)
An ancient coastal city of cyrenaica, now modern Libya, ptolemy iii euergetes i (r. 246-221 B.c.E.) named the site when the area was taken by Egypt. Ptolemais served as a port for trading ships and flourished throughout many historical periods until the 14th century c.E.
Ptolemy, Claudius (fl. second century b.c.e.)
Alexandrian scholar
He served in the reign of ptolemy vi philometor (180164, 163-145 B.c.E.). claudius Ptolemy is famous for the map that he made of the known world.
Ptolemy I Soter (d. 284 b.c.e.)
Founder of the Ptolemaic Period
He ruled from 304 B.c.E. until his death. Ptolemy i was the son of lagus, a Macedonian military companion of Alexander [iii] the great. His title Soter, meaning Savior, was bestowed upon him by the city of Rhodes when he relieved that small state during a siege.
When Alexander died in 323 B.c.E., Ptolemy i served as satrap of Egypt for philip iii arrhidaeus (r. 323-316 b.c.e.) and Alexander IV (r. 316-304 b.c.e.). He ruled as well over parts of Libya and the adjacent Arabian regions. When the body of Alexander the Great was being transported in a giant, mobile sarcophagus to vergina, Macedonia’s necropolis, Ptolemy took an army and intercepted the funeral cortege. He stole the body of Alexander the in ALEXANDRIA.
An engraving of Ptolemy I, founder of the Ptolemaic Period in Egypt, c. 304-30 b.c.e.
Great and returned to Egypt, stating that the conqueror had expressed the desire to be buried in the siwa Oasis. The remains were displayed at Memphis and then buried
The satrap stela, inscribed in 311 b.c.e., proclaims Ptolemy i’s role in defeating the Persians. Following a war against perdiccas, another heir to the empire of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy i owned Egypt and cyrenaica. in 304 B.c.E., resisting an attack by Antigonus, he assumed the title of pharaoh. He married eurydice, the daughter of King Antipater of Macedonia, having set aside the daughter of Nectanebo or some other ruler of the Thirtieth Dynasty. Later on, he also married Queen BERENICE (1).
Ptolemy I then joined lysimachus and Cassander against antigonus i monophthalmus. He marched on Antigonus’s son, demetrius i poliorcetes, at Gaza and defeated him. That campaign and victory set the seal upon Ptolemy i’s claim upon Egypt. He fought as well at salamis and lost; but ultimately, he repelled Antigonus, who was killed at ipsus in 301 B.c.E. Ptolemy i added Palestine and southern syria to his domains.
In Egypt, Ptolemy I built a shrine to thoth in Tuna el-Gebel. He founded a museum at Alexandria, called “the shrine of the Muses,” to house sages and ancient papyri. This became the famed library of Alexandria and research center. He built a temple to serapis and a mausoleum and also planned the Pharos, the famed lighthouse. Ptolemy I had four children by Queen Eury-dice, and three by Queen Berenice. He set aside Queen Eurydice and disinherited her children in favor of Berenice’s son, ptolemy ii philadelphus, who served as coregent for a year.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (d. 246 b.c.e.)
Second ruler of the Ptolemaic Period
He reigned from 285 b.c.e. until his death and was the son of ptolemy i soter and Queen Berenice (1). Ptolemy II married arsinoe (1), the daughter of Lysimachus of Thrace, but exiled her to koptos when his sister, another arsinoe (2), returned to Egypt from Thrace. When he formally married his sister, he received the title Philadel-phus, meaning “Brother-Sister Loving.”
From 274 to 271 b.c.e., Ptolemy II had to defend Egypt from the syrians, but he achieved power and lands from alliances with other Greek states. During his reign, Alexandria became a leading center for the arts and sciences. Ptolemy ii also aided irrigation projects throughout the land. He celebrated a festival every four years in honor of Ptolemy i soter, whom he deified, and completed his great building projects, including the Library of Alexandria and the lighthouse of ALEXANDRiA.He added theaters, gardens, zoological displays, and gymnasiums to various sites as well.
Ptolemy ii was called “the best paymaster, a freeman could have” by the Greek poet Theocrites. He even com-missioned an expedition south into Africa’s heartland to bring back elephants and other animals, as well as incense. He then sent a delegation to Rome and brought 70 jewish scholars to Alexandria from jerusalem to transcribe the Pentateuch accurately. A banquet reportedly lasted for seven nights upon the arrival of these scholars.
A portrait of Ptolemy II, called Philadelphus, the second ruler of the Ptolemaic Period.
Ptolemy II was depicted in philae offering incense and ointments to the gods. He erected a gate in the Philae temple. A stela was also mounted at Tell el-Maskhuta to commemorate his journey to Persia to reclaim religious masterpieces taken by past rulers of that nation. Ptolemy II also rebuilt a canal linking the Nile to the Gulf of Suez, a waterway renovated centuries later by Emperor Trajan. His children were ptolemy iii euergetes, Lysimachus, and Berenice, who married Antiochus of syria in 252. Ptolemy iii Euergetes succeeded him.
Ptolemy III Euergetes (d. 221 b.c.e.)
Third ruler of the Ptolemaic Period
He reigned from 246 b.c.e. until his death and was the son of ptolemy ii philadelphus and Queen arsinoe (2). Berenice (3), the daughter of Magas, the king of Cyrene, was his consort. His sister, Berenice (2), was slain in syria, and Ptolemy iii invaded that land to avenge the murder. The Egyptian navy advanced against Seleucus Ill’s forces in Thrace, across the Hellespont, capturing lands in Asia Minor. Ptolemy iii led an army to seleucia on the Tigris River but had to return to Egypt because of a low Nile inundation and famine. He faced an alliance of seleucid syria, Macedonia, and Rhodes but was joined by the achaean league. A peace was organized in 242-241 B.C.E.
In Egypt, Ptolemy III colonized the faiyum and reformed the calendar with the canopus DECREE.He received the title Euergetes, meaning the Benefactor, as a result of these efforts. His campaigns in syria took approximately five years, and Berenice stood as regent during his absence with success. During the remaining years of his reign, Ptolemy iii built Minsha’a, near sohag in Upper Egypt, as a sister city to Alexandria. Two offering tables, a limestone wall, and a pillar capital were found there. The site served as a trading center with nubia (modern Sudan) and the Red Sea.
He also constructed a temple in edfu, restoring treasures stolen by the Persians centuries before. Ptolemy iii built at the serapeum, adding another library to accommodate an overflow of topics, and borrowing more volumes to have them copied. Actually, the original manuscripts of Aeschylus, sophocles, and Euripedes arrived in Alexandria on loan from Athens. Ptolemy iii made copies and sent them back to Athens, keeping the originals. He forfeited an amount of silver, given in surety, as a result. During his reign, Ptolemy iii and Queen Berenice were deified as “Benevolent Gods” by Egypt. The priests at Canopus declared their status in 238 B.c.E.
Ptolemy IV Philopator (d. 205 b.c.e.)
Fourth ruler of the Ptolemaic Period
He reigned from 221 b.c.e. until his death. The son of ptolemy iii euergetes and Queen Berenice (3), he was controlled by sosibius Alexander, a Greek counselor. Ptolemy iv is believed to have poisoned his mother and scalded his brother, magas, to death. Because of his dissolute ways, Ptolemy iv could not maintain the loyalty of the various court officials.
Sensing this weakness, antiochus iii, the Seleucid king, threatened the Egyptian vassal territory of caele syria, some distance from Egypt’s military defenses. Arabs in the region and defecting Egyptians joined Antiochus, but in 217 B.c.E., using phalanx maneuvers skillfully, the armies of Ptolemy iv defeated Antiochus at Raphia in southern Palestine. Ptolemy iv, however, did not follow up on his military advantage but made peace.
called Philopator, “Lover of His Father,” Ptolemy iv married his sister, arsinoe (3), and she bore him ptolemy V epiphanes. In time, however, Ptolemy IV was controlled more and more by sosibius and other counselors, including agathocles (2), and his sister, Agatho-clea. They aided him in his excesses.
Native Egyptians in the Delta rebelled against him as a result, and by 205 B.c.E., the revolt was nationwide. Restoring order, Ptolemy iv refrained from all foreign interventions and began good relations with meroe in Nubia (modern Sudan). A philae inscription lists the cooperation between Ptolemy IV and King arkamani of Meroe in building a temple for the Nubian deity arsenuphis at Aswan. He also received ambassadors from Rome who were seeking grain. When Ptolemy IV died from his excesses, sosibius and his confederates did not allow the news to be made public. To safeguard their own lives, they murdered Queen Arsinoe and installed Ptolemy v on the throne before announcing the royal death. Riots followed the announcements.
Ptolemy V Epiphanes (d. 180 b.c.e.)
Fifth ruler of the Ptolemaic Period
He reigned from 205 b.c.e. until his death. The son of ptolemy IV philopator and Queen arsinoe (3), Ptolemy v was only five years of age when the court counselor sosibius and his allies crowned him as king. These conspirators then murdered Queen Arsinoe. At the coronation, sosibius issued writs of exile in the ruler’s name against prominent Egyptians who opposed his powers. Sosibius, however, was soon forced to retire, and agathocles (2) became the young ruler’s master.
General tlepolemus, the governor of Egypt’s frontier city, pelusium, did not intend to allow Queen Arsinoe’s murderers to go unpunished. He rode into Alexandria with a small force and gathered the people of the city behind his impromptu army as he demanded that Ptolemy v be brought before the people. Agathocles had to allow the young ruler to appear in the arena, and there Tlepolemus accused the courtiers of murder. The Alexandrian people swept through the city when they heard the names of the criminals. Agathocles, Agathoclea, and their allies died at the hands of the outraged populace.
Freed of the courtiers, Ptolemy v Epiphanes was crowned again in Memphis in a grand ceremony Epiphanes meant “God Manifest.” The event was accompanied by a decree remitting debts and taxes, releasing prisoners, benefiting temples, and pardoning rebels who had submitted. The nation rejoiced at the fall of the evil courtiers.
Ptolemy v eventually had to put down other revolts throughout Egypt, however. A battle with antiochus iii, the syrian seleucid king, was also fought in Ptolemy v’s name in 201 B.c.E. Antiochus iii continued to harass Egyptian lands until the Romans intervened in 194-193 B.c.E. Within Egypt Ptolemy v fought battles against rebels in 197 B.c.E. in order to quell the revolts in upper Egypt, he invested the governor of Thebes with juridical powers. Peace was insured with syria when Ptolemy v married cleopatra (1), the daughter of Antiochus III the Great. She bore him two sons, including ptolemy vi philometor, and a daughter.
Ptolemy V also erected a stela on the elephantine Island, at ASWAN, describing the famine and pious activities of the Old Kingdom pharaoh djoser (r. 2630-2611 B.c.E.). He slowly regained control of upper Egypt and erected a temple of imhotep, Djoser’s gifted architect, at Philae. He also provided endowments for the cults of apis, mnevis, and other animals, erecting a temple for Apis and equipping shrine and cult centers. cleopatra poisoned Ptolemy v, and when he died, she stood as regent for Ptolemy vi Philometor.
Ptolemy VI Philometor (d. 145 B.c.E.)
Sixth ruler of the Ptolemaic Period
He reigned from 180 to 164 b.c.e. and then from 163 b.c.e. until his death. Ptolemy VI was the son of ptolemy v epiphanes and Queen cleopatra (1), and when his father was poisoned, his mother stood as regent until her death in 176 b.c.e. Then two courtiers, Eulaeus and Lenaeus, became his self appointed guardians.
Ptolemy VI married his sister cleopatra (2) and began to plan an invasion of coele-syria. in 170 B.c.E., he raised up his brother, ptolemy viii euergetes ii, to rule with him and Cleopatra. The attempt to regain Coele-Syria was unsuccessful, as antiochus iv defeated the Egyptian forces and took pelusium, the frontier city. Antiochus had other ambitions, but he withdrew when the Roman legate Papillius laenas and his legions persuaded him that any further assault would be met with a Roman response.
In 164 b.c.e., Ptolemy VI was expelled by his brother and fled to Rome, where he pleaded for aid. Ptolemy viii was sent to cyrenaica as a result but placed his case before the Roman senate and received approval. He planned to return to Egypt but came face to face with his brother in a battle over cyprus and lost. Ptolemy viii was given cyrenaica as part of the peace terms and the hand of one of Ptolemy vi’s daughters in marriage.
In 155 b.c.e., the Seleucid Syrians tried to take cyprus, but a rebel pretender arose to threaten the Seleucid throne. Alexander balas, the rebel, was aided by Egypt and given the hand of cleopatra thea, Ptolemy Vl’s sister, in marriage. Cleopatra Thea appealed to Ptolemy vi to visit her because she was unhappy, and he went to syria. Alexander Balas tried to assassinate him in order to take the Egyptian throne, and Ptolemy VI gave Cleopatra Thea to a new pretender to the Syrian throne, Demetrius II. The Syrians offered Ptolemy VI the throne, but he declined the honor. Alexander Balas was killed in a subsequent battle. During that confrontation Ptolemy vi also fell off his horse, fracturing his skull, and died.
He built the gate of the temple of ptah at karnak,as well as figures at the entrance to the main temple of hathor in philae. He was also in the temple of kom ombo. His contemporaries described Ptolemy VI as pious and generous.
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator (d. 145 b.c.e.)
Seventh ruler of the Ptolemaic Period
He reigned only during 145 b.c.e. The son of ptolemy vi philometor, and Queen cleopatra (2), he was called “the New Father Loving.” Ptolemy VII served as a core-gent with his father as early as 147 b.c.e., and there is an indication that yet another brother shared the throne briefly. When Ptolemy VI died in Syria, the Egyptians asked ptolemy viii euergetes ii, Ptolemy VII’s uncle, to take the throne. He married cleopatra (3), Ptolemy vi’s widow, and put Ptolemy VII aside. The young ruler was then executed.
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (Physkon) (d. 116 b.c.e.)
Eighth ruler of the Ptolemaic Period He reigned from 170 to 163 b.c.e., and from 145 b.c.e. until his death. The son of ptolemy v epiphanes and probably Queen cleopatra (1), he was called “Physcon,” or Fatty. The Roman Scipio Africanus gave him that nickname. He ruled for a time with ptolemy vi philometor and cleopatra (2) and then tried to take control, expelling his brother. Rome settled the situation, and Ptolemy viii was given cyrenaica. At the death of Ptolemy vi, he put his nephew, Ptolemy vii, to death and married cleopatra (2). He then married a niece, cleopatra (3) and plotted against his first wife, who was popular.
As a result of court intrigue, Ptolemy viii and Cleopatra (3) fled to Cyprus. There they sent for Mem-phites, a young son of cleopatra (2), and murdered him. They cut up the body and delivered it to Cleopatra (2) as a birthday present. The couple returned to Egypt c. 118 b.c.e. and sent Cleopatra (2) into exile. She died soon after, but cleopatra (3) outlived her husband, who died in 116 b.c.e.
In 118 b.c.e., Ptolemy VIII issued the Amnesty Decree, an effort to put an end to the conflicts between the native Egyptians and the Greeks. He was considered a somewhat impetuous but magnanimous benefactor of Egyptian temples. At edfu, he was depicted in the company of Egypt’s protectors, the goddess buto and nekhe-bet, and his coronation festival was staged there. He is also depicted on a wall of Kom ombo, and he erected a temple at Tod (Djerty), near erment. Ptolemy VIII built two MAMMISI structures, one at Philae and a second temple of horus at Edfu.
Ptolemy IX Soter II (Lathyros) (d. 81 b.c.e.)
Ninth ruler of the Ptolemaic Period
He reigned from 116 to 107 b.c.e., and then from 88 b.c.e. until his death. The son of ptolemy viii euergetes ii and cleopatra (3), he inherited the throne at a young age. His mother served as his regent, as he was called “Lathyros,” or “Chickpea,” at the start of his reign.
Ptolemy ix was accused of attempting to murder his mother, Queen cleopatra (3), and was exiled to cyprus while she was forced by the Roman sulla to marry a younger son of ptolemy vii neos philopator, ptolemy x Alexander i, and continued to dominate Egypt. When Ptolemy X died in 88 b.c.e., Ptolemy IX returned to Egypt and remained on the throne to the age of 80. He received the name soter, “the savior,” for his services. Ptolemy IX was depicted in kom ombo as sharing a boat with two gods amid plants, birds, and other deities.
Ptolemy X Alexander I (d. 88 b.c.e.)
Tenth ruler of the Ptolemaic Period
He reigned from 107 b.c.e. until his death. Ptolemy X was the son of Ptolemy VIII and cleopatra (3). He was made the consort of cleopatra (3) when his brother, Ptolemy IX, fled to cyprus. A degenerate, however, and normally ill, Ptolemy x bequeathed Egypt to Rome in his will before fleeing Alexandria. He died at sea and was replaced by Ptolemy xi.
Ptolemy XI Alexander II (d. 80 b.c.e.)
Eleventh ruler of the Ptolemaic Period
He married cleopatra Berenice, who had followed her father, ptolemy ix soter ii to the throne. Ptolemy XI ruled only one year in 80 b.c.e. Sulla, the ruler of Rome, had demanded that Ptolemy xi marry cleopatra Berenice.
He killed her within a year and was slain by an irate Alexandrian mob.
Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysius (Auletes) (d. 51 b.c.e.)
Twelfth ruler of the Ptolemaic Period
He reigned from 88 to 58 B.c.E. and from 55 B.c.E. until his death. The son of ptolemy ix soter ii by a concubine, he was called Neos Dionysius, “the New Dionysius” or Nothos, “the Bastard.” His lasting nickname was Auletes, “the Flute Player.” He was the father of cleopatra vii.
Ptolemy XII built at dendereh and edfu and refurbished philae. Much of his life had been spent in the court of Mithridates vi of Pontus at sinope. When ptolemy XI Alexander II died, he was recalled to Egypt. in 58 B.c.E., Ptolemy xii had to leave Egypt because of his unpopular rule. He was restored by the Roman general Gabinus through the intercession of pompey the Great in 55 b.c.e. rabirius postumous subsequently handled Ptolemy xii’s affairs as a safeguard for Rome’s interests. Ptolemy xii’s will was deposited in Rome’s public treasury and as a result, Pompey became the guardian of Egypt in 49 b.c.e. Ptolemy XII married his sister, cleopatra (6) tryphaina. More than 100 leading Alexandrian scholars went to Rome to protest Ptolemy xii’s reinstatement and his reign. He was listed in the temple of kom ombo.
Ptolemy XIII (d. 47 b.c.e.)
Coruler with Cleopatra VII and a victim of the war with Julius Caesar The son of ptolemy xii neos dionysus and possibly cleopatra (6) tryphaina, Ptolemy XIII had to share royal powers with his sister, starting their joint reign in 51 B.c.E. His court advisers, however, fostered his ambitions, and he forced cleopatra vii to flee from Alexandria. pompey was named his guardian as a result. The war between Pompey and Julius caesar, however, interrupted this guardianship. When Pompey, fleeing from caesar, landed in Egypt, he was slain by Ptolemy xiii’s agents, hoping to have the victorious caesar as an ally.
He was forced to join his army in the desert near Alexandria, however, when caesar ruled in favor of Cleopatra VII’s claims, joined in time by arsinoe (4), his sister. Arsinoe complicated matters by murdering Achillas, the military general who might have directed Egypt’s forces with skill. Ptolemy xiii also faced additional armies when an ally of caesar arrived with fresh troops. He died by drowning after an attempt to ambush Caesar failed. A shrine at kom ombo depicts him in various acts of worship. He also built in philae.
Ptolemy XIV (d. 44 b.c.e.)
Ruler of the Ptolemaic Period, sharing the throne with Cleopatra VII He was a coruler starting in 47 b.c.e. When ptolemy xiii died fighting the Romans, Ptolemy xiv, a younger brother of cleopatra vii, was elevated to consort and coregent status, a nominal position only, as cleopatra vii was carrying Caesar’s child. The assassination of Julius caesar alarmed Cleopatra VII, and she had Ptolemy XIV slain. No monuments from his brief reign survived.
Ptolemy XV Caesarion (Iwopaneftjer entynehem Setepenptah Irma’atenre’ Sekhemankhamun) (d. 30 b.c.e.)
Coruler of the Ptolemaic Period The son of cleopatra vii and Julius caesar, Ptolemy XV started his reign in 44 b.c.e. Although he was only a child, he was raised to the throne to protect him. Ptolemy xiv, who had been coruler with cleopatra vii, had been slain to make room for him.
called caesarion, his throne name meant “Heir of the Living God, the Chosen One of ptah, Living the Rule of re, the Living Image of amun.” He was depicted with his mother on the wall of the temple of dendereh as being offered to the gods. The Roman Senate in 42 b.c.e. sponsored Ptolemy XV’s elevation to the throne. He witnessed the disastrous battle of actium and the death of Cleopatra VII and Marc antony and then was executed by the Romans, reportedly a death ordered by Augustus (Octavian) at the urging of Aeries Didymos, Ptolemy XV’s former tutor.
Ptolemy Apion (d. 96 b.c.e.)
Prince of the Ptolemaic Period
He was the bastard son of ptolemy viii euergetes ii (170-163, 145-116 B.c.E.). Ptolemy became the governor of CYPRUS and ruled there until his death in 96 b.c.e.
Ptolemy Magas (fl. third century b.c.e.)
Prince of the Ptolemaic Period
He was the son of Berenice (1) and stepson of ptolemy i soter (304-284 b.c.e.). When Ptolemy I married Berenice (1), Ptolemy Magas was made the governor of cyrene. His daughter was Berenice (3), and she married PTOLEMY III EUERGETES.
Ptolemy Philadelphos (fl. first century b.c.e.)
Prince of the Ptolemaic Period
He was the son of cleopatra vii (51-30 b.c.e.) and Marc antony. The youngest child of this pair, Ptolemy Philadelphos was made the ruler of Asia Minor and syria. The deaths of his parents ended his powers.
Punt it was an unidentified land believed to have been located in eastern sudan or Eritrea, and important in all eras of Egypt as a trade resource. The Egyptians reached Punt by going through the bitter lakes in the eastern Delta to the Red Sea or by going through the wadi ham-mamat on the koptos Road to the city of kuser on the Red sea. Kuser was provided with shipbuilding facilities, and expeditionary fleets were outfitted for journeys to Punt in this city.
Punt offered electrum (a gold and silver mixture), gold, ivory, myrrh, incense, skins, boomerangs, cosmetics, spices, wild animals, resins, ebony, and aromatic gums in trade. Egypt’s actual trade with Punt dates to the reign of sahure (2458-2446 b.c.e.), possibly earlier. In the Sixth Dynasty (2323-2150 b.c.e.) an Egyptian died while building a trading fleet on the Red sea. Pepi ii (2246-2152 b.c.e.) sent many expeditions to Punt, called “the land of the god.” myrrh, used as incense in religious festivals and rites, was imported in vast quantities and commonly tallied by scribes as a result of these trading ventures. Myrrh trees were also planted in the temple compounds.
In the Middle Kingdom, montuhotep ii (r. 20612010 b.c.e.), senwosret i (r. 1971-1926 b.c.e.), amen-emhet ii (r. 1929-1892 b.c.e.), and other pharaohs sent expeditions to Punt. in the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.) such trade journeys were increased, and hatshep-sut (r. 1473-1458 b.c.e.) is well connected to this practice. Reliefs from her period depict the gathering of goods, the loading of vessels in Punt, return voyages, and the presentation of the trade wares in Thebes. Weights and measures are recorded as well.
tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.), amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b.c.e.), horemhab (r. 1319-1307 b.c.e.), seti i (r. 1306-1290 b.c.e.), ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.); and ramesses iii (r. 1194-1163 b.c.e.) also sent expeditions to Punt during the New Kingdom period. A stela in Amenhotep Ill’s mortuary temple mentions Punt. The Harris papyrus from Ramesses Il’s historical period gives a depiction of such expeditions. The royal and common people of Punt came to visit Egypt and were also depicted in reliefs. The illustrations in a temple in the reign of Hat-shepsut clearly portray a Puntite family that was brought to Egypt on one of the expeditions of the time.
A chief is shown with his wife, two sons, and a daughter. The wife of the chief is portrayed as having pronounced curvature of the spine and folds of fat on her arms and ankles. This condition has been diagnosed as symptoms of various diseases of the African region. These same reliefs depict Egyptian fleets sailing to and from the fabled land, a convention that continued in the Ramessid Period.
Pure Mound
A legendary site called Abaton in some records, the Pure Mound was located on the island of biga, near philae. The primeval mound and this site were all considered the first true portions of the earth that arose out of nun, the original dark void or chaos at the moment of creation.
Puyenre (fl. 15th century b.c.e.)
Priestly official of the Eighteenth Dynasty
He served hatshepsut (r. 1473-1458 b.c.e.) as a high-ranking priest of the temple of amun. It is, however, as an architect that he is principally remembered. He created the beautiful shrine of mut that Hatshepsut erected, and he was consulted on other royal building projects. Puyenre survived Hatshepsut and was accepted by her successor, tuthmosis iii, whose karnak building projects were influenced by his designs. Puyenre was buried with honors in Thebes. His tomb at qurna has reliefs portraying his work, including a session of tallying Asiatic spoils and tributes.
pylon
They are the majestic architectural entrance forms adorning Egyptian temples, dating probably to the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b.c.e.), possibly earlier. The pyramid and sun temple of niuserre (r. 2416-2392 b.c.e.) at abusir and abu ghurob display a form of pylon. The name pylon was taken from the Greek word for gate. The Egyptian name was bekhenet.
The structure was composed of two battered towers linked by a masonry bridge with cornices. The flat surface on the top was reserved for rituals honoring the god re. Most were built over a pile of rubble, but some had interior chamber and stairs. The pylons were decorated with reliefs and completed by flagstaff’s. The pylon represented the AKHET (2), the religious symbol for the eternal horizon. The divine patrons of the pylons were the goddesses isis and nephthys.
A pylon from the temple of Isis at Philae.
pyramid
The monument erected as a tomb and stage for mortuary rituals and immortalized at giza, the pyramid, called mr by the Egyptians, was considered the place of ascent, the point of departure for the royal deceased on his journey to eternity, and was normally given special names to signify the special status as a tomb of the pharaoh. Architecturally, the pyramid represented the culmination of the mortuary structures elaborated from the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b.c.e.).
The mastabas, the brick tombs of the early historical periods, were provided with burial and offertory chambers, and they represent the original mortuary buildings of Egypt. some, such as those erected for the rulers and queens in saqqara and abydos, were designed with facades having recessed and projecting walls, after the palaces of the era, and became known as “mansions for eternity.” one such mastaba, that of an official in the reign of den in the First Dynasty named Nebtiu, started out to resemble a pyramid but was then altered to its traditional form.
In the reign of djoser (2630-2611 b.c.e.), in the Third Dynasty, imhotep, his vizier, placed a series of stone mastabas atop one another in a graduated design, forming the step pyramid in saqqara. The Step Pyramid was originally 204 feet high, composed of six separate layers or “steps,” each one successively smaller in size. The base measured 358 feet by 411 feet. The layers of the pyramid were faced with limestone and were surrounded by a vast complex of buildings, replicas of those erected to celebrate sed festivals, and a wall, which was carved in relief to resemble a palace facade. The entire enclosure measured 1,800 by 900 feet and was paved with limestone. The walls contained 211 bastions and 14 gateways.
The Step Pyramid contained a 90-foot shaft that led to underground chambers and passageways. The burial vault was 13 feet high, encased entirely in granite, with a plug to seal the entrance made of the same material. The eastern section of the pyramid contained tombs of Djoser’s wives and sons. Eleven shafts have been discovered, sunken to almost 100 feet. The enclosure around the pyramid contained shrines, altar chambers, courts, a heb-sed hall, storerooms, and the tombs of Djoser’s courtiers. The site was actually a miniature city, with its own priests and liturgical schedules. other step pyramids were started soon after Djoser’s reign. some have been discovered at seila, Zawiyet el-Mayitin, E1-kula, edfu, and on the elephantine; they appear to be mostly tombs of nobles.
The true pyramid appeared in the Fourth Dynasty, in the reign of snefru (2575-2551 b.c.e.), who built two pyramids at dashur and finished his father’s pyramid at meidum. The traditional pyramidal complex evolved from that tomb, which contains the various components that were considered necessary to the purpose of the monument. The first attempted pyramids rose on the fringes of the desert area west of Memphis, between Meidum and abu rowash. The great pyramids at giza are best known today, but there are more than 70 other such monuments, large and small, stretching the length of the Nile as far south as modern sudan, where other pyramids were erected. The centerpiece of the pyramid complex was the pyramid.
The narrow corridor of stone leading into the interior of the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza.
The pyramid was a solar symbol, stemming from the cult at heliopolis. Its four sides were designed to face the cardinal points of the earth. The entrance was normally on the north side, sometimes above ground level and sometimes level with the ground. Beside the pyramid was placed an offertory shrine, a chapel for holding mortuary rites and rituals in commemoration of the royal cult. This building contained ceremonial chambers and the mandatory false door for the use of the ka (“soul”) of the deceased ruler. Religious insignias and statues adorned the chambers, and the walls were inscribed and covered with reliefs.
A mortuary temple was constructed near the pyramid, with an elaborate entrance corridor and central court. Most of these have disappeared over the centuries, but when the pyramids were built they were lavish shrines, with offertory chambers, rooms containing altars, storage rooms, and the traditional SERDAB. The serdab contained statues of the deceased pharaohs positioned so that their eyes could peer through slits in the wall to view the daily ceremonies conducted in the deceased’s name and memory. Nonroyal tombs also contained serdabs. A causeway led from this temple to a valley temple on the banks of the Nile or at a distance in the desert. The walls of the causeway were elaborately decorated, and originally they had stone roofs. valley temples were the sites of initial funerary observances. They comprised various chambers designed to accommodate the priests involved in the obsequies.
Less elaborate pyramids and tombs were also built for queens and for favored nobles and certain members of the royal family. These were constructed near the main pyramid. solar barks or mortuary boats were also brought to the complex. some, fashioned out of wood and gold, were buried in deep pits in Fourth Dynasty pyramids. The pyramid of khufu at Giza was provided with two boat pits. Walls surrounded this entire pyramidal complex, a tradition dating to the great limestone enclosure that surrounded the step Pyramid in saqqara. Private tombs and the burial places of lesser members of the royal clan or of the court were placed just inside these walls.
The construction of the pyramid was an involved and lengthy process. For example, some estimate that the Great Pyramid of Khufu required the full-time labor of thousands of workers over a 20-year period. The first activity involved in the pyramid construction was the choice of a site by the architects and artists of the royal court, normally chosen because of the type of ground available. The desert fringes, with rocky cores and out-croppings, normally offered the firmest base for the weight of the construction. The site deemed appropriate would be leveled by workmen, and then the foundation dug out of the ground according to the design and architectural plan. The foundation was extremely important, and most pyramids contain foundation stelae and other commemorative inscriptions, much like the cornerstones of modern buildings. When the dedication rituals were completed, workmen began to dig out the various chambers, corridors, and passageways for the subterranean level of the monument.
THE MAJOR PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT
| Dynasty | Ruler | Location |
| Third | Djoser (2630-261 1 b.c.e.) | northern Saqqara |
| Sekhemkhet (261 1-2601 b.c.e.) | northern Saqqara | |
| Kha’ba (2603-2599 b.c.e.) | Zawiet el-Aryan | |
| Fourth | Snefru (2575-2551 b.c.e.) | Meidum |
| Snefru | southern Dashur | |
| Snefru | northern Dashur | |
| Khufu (2551-2528 b.c.e.) | Giza | |
| Ra’djedef (2528-2520 b.c.e.) | Abu Rowash | |
| Khafre (2520-2494 b.c.e.) | Giza | |
| Menkaure (2490-2472 b.c.e.) | Giza | |
| Shepseskhaf (2472-2467 b.c.e.) | southern Saqqara | |
| Fifth | Userkhaf (2465-2458 b.c.e.) | northern Saqqara |
| Userkhaf | Abusir | |
| Sahure (2458-2446 b.c.e.) | Abusir | |
| Kakai (2446-2426 b.c.e.) | Abusir | |
| Neferefre (2419-2416 b.c.e.) | Abusir | |
| Niuserre (2416-2392 b.c.e.) | Abusir | |
| Niuserre | Abu Ghurob | |
| Menkauhor (2396-2388 b.c.e.) | Dashur | |
| Menkauhor | Abusir (?) | |
| Izezi (2388-2356 b.c.e.) | southern Saqqara | |
| Unis (2356-2323 b.c.e.) | northern Saqqara | |
| Sixth | Teti (2323-2291 b.c.e.) | northern Saqqara |
| Pepi I (2289-2255 b.c.e.) | southern Saqqara | |
| Merenre (2255-2246 b.c.e.) | southern Saqqara | |
| Pepi II (2246-2152 b.c.e.) | southern Saqqara | |
| Eighth | Qakare Iby (date unknown) | southern Saqqara |
| Twelfth | Amenemhet I (1991-1962 b.c.e.) | el-Lisht |
| Senwosret I (1971-1926 b.c.e.) | el-Lisht | |
| Amenemhet II (1929-1892 b.c.e.) | Dashur | |
| Senwosret II (1897-1878 b.c.e.) | el-Lahun | |
| Senwosret III (1878-1841 b.c.e.) | Dashur | |
| Amenemhet III (1841-1797 b.c.e.) | Dashur | |
| Amenemhet III | Hawara | |
| Sobekneferu (1787-1783 b.c.e.) | Mazghuna | |
| Thirteenth | Khendjer (date unknown) | southern Saqqara |
The second monument at Giza, the burial complex of Khafre (Chephren).
some unfinished pyramids, such as the pyramids at abu rowash and zawiet el-aryan, have magnificent underground chambers and hallways. stairways, passages, ramps, portcullis (stone slabs lowered into place to block halls at critical junctures, especially in the Fourth Dynasty pyramids), traps, and stone plugs were installed beside the burial rooms and storage areas. Large ramps for lowering the granite or alabaster sarcophagi were also erected, sometimes with staircases on either side.
construction on the pyramid would then start. some had solid stone cores, much like the mastaba levels of imhotep’s step Pyramid, but others had initial walls, filled with rubble, mud, and sand. Layers of masonry supported the walls, and these were encased in fine stone and then capped by the pyramidion. it is thought that ramps were built to each level as the construction continued, so that the stones could be moved into place. As the pyramid grew in height, the appropriate ramps would be heightened. There is some debate about whether ramps were used. it is possible that mounds were built and attached to the sides or fashioned on the ascending levels. such conveniences were removed when the casings were being applied.
When the structure was completed, with the chambers painted and inscribed and the casing put into place so that the stone shimmered and glistened in the sunlight, the funeral of the deceased commenced at the site. The sarcophagus was lowered into the burial chamber, where rituals were also conducted. some chambers were carved out of a single piece of stone. When the sarcophagus of the ruler was firmly in place, the burial chamber was sealed and plugged, and the corridors leading away from it were also blocked by various means. When the funeral cortege was outside, the entrance to the pyramid was sealed by moving stones into place to complete the wall to make the structure secure.
The Great Pyramid at Giza, erected by Khufu (2551-2528 b.c.e.), is the most outstanding example of the genre, the only surviving wonder of the ancient world. The base of the pyramid covers 13 acres, and a total of 2,300,000 yellow limestone stones were used in its construction. The pyramid was called the Horizon of Khufu and was positioned in keeping with the astronomical and religious traditions of the era. originally part of a vast complex, the pyramid now stands amid only two other great pyramids and various smaller tombs of queens and other members of the royal family.
Pyramid Texts
The oldest surviving examples of religious literature in Egypt, these texts were actually inscriptions on the walls of the royal pyramids of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties (2465-2323 b.c.e. and 2323-2150 b.c.e.). The priests of heliopolis wrote the texts that appear in the tomb of unis (r. 2356-2323 B.c.E.) and those of other pharaohs and their queens. Unis’s Pyramid Texts served as the standard for other inscriptions. Funerary formulas, spells, incantations, and magical phrases that enabled the pharaoh to become the sun and a star were included. The texts provided the traditional forms called the “sun-ladder,” which could be used to ascend into the heavens. They were discontinued when the pharaohs abandoned the construction of the pyramids. As the tombs were smaller at the close of the Old Kingdom (2134 b.c.e.), coffin texts repeated the formulas in confined spaces.
pyramid workers
Groups of skilled artisans and builders who served as the builders of the pyramids of the old Kingdom (2575-2134 B.c.E.), these groups are now called “gangs,” and they left inscriptions detailing their work. The gangs used colorful names such as “Friends of khufu” and the “drunkards of menkaure.” Some gangs existed for more than six decades. Their support facilities, residence, and necropolis areas are being uncovered in modern excavations.
