PREDYNASTIC PERIOD To Montuhotep II's army

Internal warfare led to the provisional unification of Egypt in 3000 b.c.e. and continued during the eras before the dynastic age. scorpion, narmer, and their military predecessors conducted campaigns in Lower Egypt in order to establish a unity of independent regions and provincial clans. The palettes and maceheads that document the events of this period portray the legendary unifiers in personal combat, and images of fallen foes and divine intervention place their military activities in the context of national unification.
warfare must have been a continuing process throughout the Predynastic Period, as conflicting groups carved out their territories and established the perimeters of their influence. it is interesting that the totems of many of the Upper Egyptian nomes, or provinces, were depicted in documents about Narmer, indicating that these warrior groups were already established to some extent and used as military units.

EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD

The early rulers of Egypt did not preside over a united land in the First Dynasty (2920-2770 b.c.e.). There is evidence of resistance on the part of various regions. aha (Menes) recorded adding territories in the south (probably the area between gebel el-silsileh and aswan). djer (r. c. 2900 b.c.e.) recorded a campaign against the Asiatics in the eastern desert. peribsen, during the Second Dynasty (2770-2649 b.c.e.), made raids into Palestine, probably exploratory expeditions or raids for cattle and other loot. kha’sekhemwy (r. 2649 b.c.e.), the last pharaoh of the Second Dynasty, probably secured Egypt’s unification, indicating continual or at least sporadic warfare on the Nile up to that era. it is possible that the first settlement at buhen, in nubia (modern Sudan), was made in his reign, as Kha’sekhemwy and his successors had started to penetrate the territories below the first cataract of the Nile.


OLD KINGDOM

The rulers of the Old Kingdom were militarily active. The Egyptian interest in the sinai territory led them to conduct punitive expeditions against the local Bedouins, the Asiatic nomads who roamed the region and resented Egyptian efforts to set up mines and quarries there. in the reign of snefru at the start of the Fourth Dynasty (2575-2465 b.c.e.), Egypt had a rather large fleet of naval vessels as well, supposedly sent to the Levant on trading expeditions.
Buhen, at the second cataract of the Nile in Nubia, became a base for southern trade and was fortified with stone walls and a dry moat. All of the rulers of snefru’s dynasty, including the pyramid builders of giza, are represented at Buhen by seals. snofru is said to have conducted a massive raid in the vicinity of Buhen, and it is probable that other Nubian settlements were begun in this period.
The rulers of the Fifth Dynasty continued the warfare. in that period the Egyptian army is recorded as having started the campaigns in palestine and other Mediterranean coastal regions. unis, the last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, claimed to have made five expeditions into Syria. The Canaan reliefs from the Sixth Dynasty depict assaults on Palestinian walled cities, and a true military leader other than the pharaoh emerged from the period: General weni, in service to pepi i (r. 2289-2255 b.c.e.).
Weni, as commander of the royal armies, levied troops from the local nomes when any military campaign seemed imminent. Nomarchs were responsible for a certain number of troops, to be supplemented by Nubian mercenaries under command of caravan leaders or trade supervisors. Many of these troops were veterans of militia training or active duty in previous campaigns. The basic unit of the army at the time was the battalion, although its exact size and functions are not documented. The militia-levy system had its obvious drawbacks. Troops brought from the various nomes held allegiance only to their own leaders. The extra levies used as support for the militias were even less nationalistically oriented. For this reason there must have been some core units of the Egyptian army that were maintained as a regular force. There is evidence of so-called household units at the time. weni commanded a well-trained military force, which suggests the presence of a regularly maintained core unit responsible for training the nome recruits. weni’s position was that of commander of troops, but he also performed other tasks for the ruler. some generals served as caravan lead-ers as the expansion of trade warranted a military presence in remote regions. These positions appear to have been hereditary, the beginnings of a military caste. ordinance and other logistical and provisionary departments were already functioning, and there were reserves and supplies mandated for the military units.
A relief depicting Ramesses II (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.) in battle array, displayed on a Karnak wall.
A relief depicting Ramesses II (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.) in battle array, displayed on a Karnak wall.
in Nubia there was a decided shift in Egyptian activities. Men like Weni used Nubian mercenaries, particularly when he served as the governor of upper Egypt, but trade was the key to Egypt’s relationship with Nubia. harkhuf and his famous expedition for the child ruler pepi ii (r. 2246-2152 b.c.e.) indicate a limited role in Nubia, mostly economic, not military. Buhen and the other forts were no longer invested with troops, and Nubia was comparatively free of Egyptian forces.
The soldiers of the old Kingdom were depicted as wearing skullcaps and carrying clan or nome totems. They used maces with wooden heads or pear-shaped stone heads. Bows and arrows were standard gear, with square-tipped flint arrowheads and leather quivers. some shields, made of hides, were in use but not generally. Most of the troops were barefoot, dressed in simple kilts or naked.

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

With the collapse of the Old Kingdom in 2134 b.c.e., military activities in Egypt were confined once again to the regions within the nation’s borders. The khety clan of herakleopolis moved against their northern and western neighbors to carve out a new royal realm. The rulers of the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties (2134-2040 b.c.e.) were vigorous warriors, aided by nome allies. They could not penetrate into upper Egypt because of the Theban resistance, and eventually the Thebans attacked their southern outposts and began marching on their capital. Nubian troops were employed in the battles in the place of the ruler. In 2040 b.c.e., the armies of montuhotep ii took Herakleopolis, and the internal wars of Egypt were coming to a close.

THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

The fall of Herakleopolis ended the Tenth Dynasty and started the Middle Kingdom. The land was united, but there were standing armies in some nomes, and aristocrats did not hesitate to use their forces to exact vengeance or to consolidate holdings. such nobles were free to act on their own behalf as long as they provided the required number of troops to the royal campaigns. such petty feuds between the nomes were ended in the Twelfth Dynasty.
There was a standing army in this period, composed of conscripts. There was a minister of war and a commander in chief of the army, or an official who worked in that capacity. Frontier units were on duty at the borders, and troops accompanied many of the mining and quarrying expeditions.
Montuhotep and his successors continued vigorous campaigns against libya and the sinai and are reported as having expanded their operations even into syrian lands. The rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1783 b.c.e.), the Amenemhets, started their reigns with military campaigns. amenemhet i (r. 1991-1962 b.c.e.) was a usurper and was skilled in military affairs, having served in martial and administrative affairs for the last Montuhotep. upon staking his claims, he took an armada of ships up and down the Nile to discourage any rebellions from nome clans. He also erected a series of garrisoned fortresses on the northern borders, called the wall of the prince. When Amenemhet I died, his son and heir, senwosret i, was on a campaign in Libya, having a small unit of bodyguards with him.
A vast army of scribes and administrators served the military forces of Egypt in this period. The frontier fortifications were manned, and there were even “shock troops” used in campaigns. There are some indications that professional soldiers were in the ranks of the Egyptian army at this time, called “the Brave” or “the Valiant.” officers could be denoted in reliefs by the feathers that they wore in their caps.
In nubia the Middle Kingdom had considerable impact. The Montuhoteps continued their raids, and the Amenemhets made a policy of fortifying trade settlements as part of their dynastic goals. senwosret i (1971-1926 b.c.e.) erected several fortresses and kept them fully staffed with troops. Ikkur, aniba, and quban date to this era, and the region around Buhen was more stiffly fortified. The Twelfth Dynasty rulers may have erected fortresses as far south as semna.
The term Kush came into being here, to designate a region of Nubia that had its capital at kermeh. During the last part of the old Kingdom and the First intermediate Period, the Nubians had built a relatively strong state in the area. senwosret iii completed the pacification of Kush and established the southern borders of Egypt as far south as Semna and uronarti.
The military gear of the Middle Kingdom was much the same as that of the Old Kingdom, although troops now carried axes and copper blades, bound to wooden hafts with leather thongs. A long bronze spear became popular, and the soldiers wore leather shirts and kilts.

THE SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

There was warfare throughout much of Egypt during the period following the collapse of the Middle Kingdom in 1640 b.c.e. Asiatics began to consolidate their holdings, after having penetrated Egypt and established their own domains. The hyksos, as these Asiatics were called, introduced horses into the Nile Valley, using the animals to pull chariots and to carry loads. The horses of that era were not actually heavy enough to carry the weight of a man for long distances, something that the Egyptians remedied rather quickly.
After a brief period of tolerance, the Thebans began to assault the southern outposts of the Hyksos, as Seke-nenre’-TA’oii (r. c. 1560 b.c.e.) began a full-scale war to oust the aliens from the Nile. When he died, his son kamose took the field in his place. Under his command the Egyptians fielded cavalry units, having lightened the Hyksos chariot and also having trained special units for such tactics. He also commanded an unusual fighting force, called the medjay, a group of Nubians who had allied themselves with Egypt’s cause. The Medjay served as scouts for the main units and then as light infantry. Kamose used the Libyan desert oases as effective hiding places in his assaults on the Hyksos, and he was within striking distance of avaris, the Hyksos capital, when he died or was slain in battle.

THE NEW KINGDOM

‘ahmose (r. 1550-1525 b.c.e.), his younger brother, took up the cause and surrounded Avaris, using both land and sea forces. The Hyksos were forced to withdraw from Egypt, and the New Kingdom began. Egypt’s army was no longer a confederation of nome levies but a first-class military force. The ruler was the commander in chief, but the vizier and another administrative series of units handled the logistical and reserve affairs. Apparently the senior officers of the army could debate campaign events with the ruler while on tours, and others were consulted for their experience.
The army was organized into divisions in the New Kingdom, both chariot forces and infantry. Each division numbered approximately 5,000 men. These divisions carried the names of the principal deities of the nation. When Egypt was not at war, the army served as a reserve force, stationed in both Upper and Lower Egypt.
The chariot force was divided into squadrons of 25 men each, and the infantry contained two types of soldiers, the veterans and the conscripts of the campaign. The kings had their own elite corps, serving as bodyguards and special shock troops. There were alien mercenary units in the army in this period as well. Some, like the sherden pirates, were pressed into service after capture, and others, like the Libyans and Nubians, were long-established units of mercenaries. A definite officer corps existed, with the lowest grade commanding 50 men and the highest, led by the “standard-bearers,” in charge of as many as 250 men. The troop commander was in charge of several brigades or commanded entire fortresses. Above this level were the various administrative officer staffs. in many instances the princes of Egypt led units into action, as in the case of two of Ramesses Il’s sons, who went to war in Nubia while still lads.
Pack animals were used for the various supplies, but boats were important in this period as well. A great naval station was located at peru-nefer, near Memphis. amenhotep ii, the son of tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.), commanded that depot and a shipbuilding site while still a prince. ox-drawn carts were also used in the field.
The pharaohs of the New Kingdom started with the war against the Hyksos and continued campaigns throughout that period. ‘Ahmose’s successor, amenhotep i, maintained the military structures, but it was tuthmosis I (r. 1504-1492 b.c.e.) who took the armies of Egypt to the Euphrates River and began the empire. His grandson, Tuthmosis III, fought at ar-megiddo and then conducted 20 more campaigns in order to put down rebellions among the occupied or vassal states of the Mediterranean region. Tuthmosis III also took hostages from the royal families of conquered states and cities and trained them in Egypt so that they were ready to rule in their own time as allies.
In nubia, meanwhile, tribes had risen again, and ‘Ahmose i and his successors had to campaign there. under Tuthmosis i the Egyptian fleet made its way south and established a fort at Tombos, which enabled the Egyptians to assault the regions easily. Tuthmosis i went as far as the fourth cataract. When he withdrew to Egypt, the body of the king of the warring tribe hung upside down on the prow of his ship. The interest in Nubia was mostly economic, and Egypt did little to respect the ways of the Nubians.
horemhab, the last ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty (1319-1307 b.c.e.) was a trained military commander. He conducted campaigns to maintain the empire, which had diminished during the ‘amarna Period and with the fall of the mitannis, Egypt’s allies. Before he died he placed ramesses I on the throne, a military comrade in arms, and the Ramessids began their military exploits.
The Ramessids, experts in campaigns and enthusiastic about the empire, warred constantly to maintain a balance of power. They faced the mighty hittites, and in the battle of kadesh both the Egyptians and Hittites escaped disaster narrowly. An alliance was the result of the conflict, which divided lands between them. The great military leader of Egypt in this period was ramesses ii (1290-1224 b.c.e.). His son, merenptah, had to fight the sea peoples and the Libyans, and conducted his campaigns with cunning and fervor. The last great warrior pharaoh of this era was ramesses iii (1194-1163 b.c.e.), who maintained Egypt’s military prowess, which gave way eventually to dynastic weakness and the avarice of the priests of amun, which brought an end to the New Kingdom.
Tuthmosis III was one of the greatest warrior kings of Egypt; he expanded the empire founded by his grandfather, Tuthmosis I, until it stretched from modern Sudan to the Euphrates River.
Tuthmosis III was one of the greatest warrior kings of Egypt; he expanded the empire founded by his grandfather, Tuthmosis I, until it stretched from modern Sudan to the Euphrates River.

THE THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

The military activities of Egypt after the fall of the New Kingdom and the rise of the Twenty-first Dynasty (1070-945 b.c.e.) were confined to the efforts of the crown and the high priests of Amun, working together, to put down the rebellions taking place in upper Egypt. These Amunite priests resided at el hiba, a fortified site. The rise of the Twenty-second Dynasty (945-712 b.c.e.), founded by shoshenq i, a Libyan, started new military expansion, especially in canaan and palestine. The Twenty-third Dynasty (c. 828-712 b.c.e.) was a period of small city-states, with no national military agenda. The Twenty-fourth Dynasty (745-712 b.c.e.) at Sais was equally inactive, eventually attacked by the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (770-712 b.c.e.) of Nubia, modern Sudan. piankhi (1) (r. 750-712 b.c.e.), the son of kashta, the dynastic founder, ruled in Thebes and Nubia and northward, gaining control of Egypt by 712 b.c.e.

THE LATE PERIOD

In the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (712-657 b.c.e.), the Assyrians invaded Egypt, destroying the reign of taharqa (690-664 b.c.e.). The Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664-525 b.c.e.) fostered Hellenic alliances and conducted revolts within the ranks of vassal states.
Egypt also conducted campaigns in palestine, Nubia, and Syria. apries (r. 589-570 b.c.e.) involved Egypt in a Libyan war as well, and he lost his throne and his life as a result. His royal line was destroyed by the persian invasion led by cambyses (r. 525-522 b.c.e.) and the founding of the Twenty-seventh Dynasty (525-404 b.c.e.).
amyrtaios (r. 404-393 b.c.e.) led a revolt and instituted the Twenty-eighth Dynasty, but the line ended at his death. The Twenty-ninth Dynasty (393-380 b.c.e.) found itself involved in affairs of the entire region, and Greek mercenaries fought Egypt. Usurpation was another source of conflict in this period, and hakoris fought battles on the side of the Greeks in their battles against the Persians. nectanebo i, who founded the Thirtieth Dynasty (380-343 b.c.e.), put the successors of Hakoris aside.
The Second Persian Period (343-332 b.c.e.) brought the Thirty-first Dynasty to Egypt, but the Persians ruled through satraps, who had to put down rebellions. The Persians ended with darius iii codoman, who was defeated by Alexander iii the great (332-323 b.c.e.).

GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

At the death of Alexander the Great, ptolemy i soter (r. 304-284 b.c.e.) declared himself the ruler of Egypt and engaged the Nile Valley’s armies in a series of campaigns. His successors fought among themselves and involved Egypt in Hellenic military campaigns. The seleucids also attacked Egypt until the powerful Romans began to adopt a protective stance concerning the Ptolemaic reigns. Defeating cleopatra vii in 30 b.c.e., Augustus (Octa-vian) made Egypt a part of the Roman Empire.

Min (1) (Menu, Amsi, Khem)

An Egyptian fertility god, Min was depicted in the ithyphallic form and served as the patron of desert travels and guardian of harvests. He was worshiped in akhmin and koptos from the earliest eras. Min was then the patron of hunters and nomads.
The god was normally shown as a man with an erect penis, wearing a plumed crown with a streamer. In some eras his statues resembled mummies. originally such statues were painted blue-black, symbolizing divinity, and Min had a human head or a hawk’s head. He held his phallus in his left hand. in that pose he was called “the God of the Lifted Hand.”
The ancient deity of Koptos, a god called A’ahes or Rahes, was absorbed by the cult of Min early on. The temples of Min were round in design. lettuce was his symbol, and his festivals were joyous occasions. In time, Min was worshiped as Min-Horus. The Palermo stone gives an account of Min, and there were three colossal statues of the deity at Koptos. He was depicted on a bowl of kha’sekhemwy, dating to c. 2650 b.c.e. In some eras he was called Min-Isis-Horus.

Min (2) (fl. 15th century b.c.e.)

Priestly official of the Eighteenth Dynasty

Min served tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) as the mayor of thinis and overseer of the priests of anhur. His most important position, however, was as archery instructor for amenhotep ii, Tuthmosis Ill’s son and heir. A veteran of military campaigns, Min supervised the prince’s military training and served as well as treasurer of Lower Egypt and judge. He was buried with honors in thebes.

Minkhaf (fl. 26th century b.c.e.)

Prince of the Fourth Dynasty

A son of khufu (Cheops; r. 2551-2528 b.c.e.),

Minkhaf assumed powerful court roles, as this dynasty maintained a firm grip on the various government agencies, not sharing the offices with outsiders. He was not the heir to the throne.

Min-Nakhte (fl. 15th century b.c.e.)

Agricultural official of the Eighteenth Dynasty

Min-Nakhte served tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) as the inspector of granaries for the throne. His tomb near
thebes was designed as a single rectangular chamber with a statue niche.

Mirgissa

A site near the second cataract of the Nile, in nubia (modern Sudan), this was the largest of a series of fortified stations erected by senwosret iii (r. 1878-1841 b.c.e.) to protect Egyptian trade and to control traffic on the river. Troops were garrisoned at the site, and storage chambers were available for trade goods in transit.

Mitannis

A powerful people who spoke the Hurrian language and invaded Mesopotamia and Syria, they emerged as a unified state during the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b.c.e.) or earlier, ruled by an Indo-Aryan royal line of kings. The Mitanni capital was Washukania or Washukanni, believed to be the modern Tell al-Fakhiriyeh in northern syria. coming from the caspian Sea originally, the Mitanni had Indo-European connections and worshiped Indian deities. During their imperial period, they ruled from Assyria to the Levant.
The rise of the militaristic Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1307 b.c.e.) brought Egypt into conflict with the Mitannis, who were expanding their own imperial domain. This expansion aided tuthmosis i (r. 1504-1492 b.c.e.) and tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) in their successful campaigns, and the Mitannis suffered defeats at the hands of the Egyptians at Aleppo and carchemish. amenhotep ii (r. 1427-1401 b.c.e.) led an army into Mitanni domains, capturing kadesh on the Orontes River. tuthmosis iv (r. 1401-1391 b.c.e.) asked artatama, the Mitanni king, for his daughter, to seal an alliance between the two states. Tuthmosis IV had to make this request seven times before the Mitanni princess arrived on the Nile. The Assyrians captured the Mitanni capital in the reign of the Assyrian king Adad-nirari (1305-1274 b.c.e.), and made the state a vassal. Shalmanesser I (1273-1244 b.c.e.) annexed the Mitanni lands, ending the empire. Egypt’s alliance with the Mitannis would prove costly in time, as Tuthmosis IV’s preference for the Mitannis over the rising hittites would spark political and military problems for the Ramessids of the Nineteenth Dynasty (1307-1196 b.c.e.).

Mit Rahinah

A temple site of the god ptah, located near Memphis, the shrine is half covered with water at the present time. A temple of ptah dominated the site and contained an elaborate shrine and colossal statues of ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.). Stone blocks from the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b.c.e.) and New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.) were salvaged from an older shrine. Ramesses ii also erected a pylon in the western part of the temple and northern and southern gates.
A smaller temple at mit rahinah included an embalming house of apis, erected by shoshenq i (r. 945-924 b.c.e.), with chapels added by shabaka (r.712-698 b.c.e.) and amasis (r. 570-526 b.c.e.). This complex is west of the remains of an earlier temple dating to the reign of tuthmosis iv (1401-1391 b.c.e.). At nearby Kom el-Rabi’a is a temple to hathor erected by Ramesses II and a temple to Ptah from the reign of merenptah (1224-1214 b.c.e.). This has a palace compound as well. Tombs from the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b.c.e.) and the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b.c.e.) are at Mit Rahinah. There are also priest tombs nearby, built during the Twenty-second Dynasty (945-712 b.c.e.).

Mitry (fl. 24th century b.c.e.)

High-ranking legal official of the Fifth Dynasty (2465-2323 b.c.e. He served in the early periods of that royal line as a provincial administrator of royal territories. Mitry was also one of “the magnates of the southern ten,” a high-ranking position as counselor and judge. His tomb in sAQQARA contained 11 wooden statues, extremely rare in ancient Egypt, life-sized portraits of the official and his wife.

Mi-wer

This is a site near modern kom medinet ghurob in the faiyum region that served as a royal retirement estate for elderly or indisposed queens of the Eighteenth (1550-1307 b.c.e.), Nineteenth (1307-1196 b.c.e.), and Twentieth (1196-1070 b.c.e.) Dynasties. The complex at Mi-wer was started by tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) and was a vast estate with royal residences and educational institutions. ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.) used Mi-wer during his reign, and Queen nefertari Merymut reportedly retired there after attending the dedication of her temple at abu simbel. The complex did not survive the end of the New Kingdom in 1070 b.c.e.

Mnevis

A deity of Egypt, originally called Mer-wer or Nem-ur, “the Living Sun God,” Mnevis was associated with re, and called “the Soul of Re.” Mnevis was symbolized in rituals by a bull that was worshiped at heliopolis. This bull was second in rank to apis and was considered a true oracle. The mother cow giving birth to a Mnevis bull, which had to be entirely black and had to have tufts of hair on its body and tail, was believed to have been transformed into Hesat, a cow goddess. The Mnevis bull was so popular as part of the solar cult of Re-Atum that akhenaten (r. 1353-1335 b.c.e.) declared that such animals should be buried at ‘amarna (Akhetaten), his capital.

Most

Mnevis bulls were interred in Heliopolis, in a necropolis under the modern site of cairo’s Arab el-Tawil. A stela of Prince ‘Ahmose, believed to be the princely son of amenhotep II (r. 1427-1401 b.c.e.), was discovered there. ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.) began the custom of erecting stone structures over rectangular pits, and each bull was buried in a large chamber decorated with reliefs. The pits were necessary because of the flat terrain of the area. merenptah (r. 1224-1214 b.c.e.) buried a Mnevis bull during his reign, building a limestone sarcophagus for the internment. The various reliefs and sacred paintings portrayed the Mnevis bull with a sun disk and the uraeus on its horns. Mnevis was associated with osiris in some historical periods and remained popular throughout the Late Period (712-332 b.c.e.).

Moalla, el-

This is a necropolis south of thebes, dating to the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b.c.e.). Two of the tombs at el-Moalla are famous for their decorations and paintings. These are the tombs of ankhtify and sobekhotep. El-Moalla was a necropolis serving the area known as tod. The Egyptians called it Hefat.

Moeris, Lake

A vast water deposit in the faiyum region of Egypt, now represented by Birkat Qarun. During the Predynastic Period (before 3000 b.c.e.), the lake stood about 120 feet above sea level. The lake rose and sank periodically, and during the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b.c.e.) efforts were made to halt the silting of the channel that connected Lake Moeris to the Nile. Refurbished, the lake served as a flood route and as a reservoir. The area around the reduced Lake Moeris became popular in the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b.c.e.).

Mokattem

This was a site near modern cairo used in many periods of Egyptian history as a source of fine quality limestone. djoser (r. 2630-2611 b.c.e.) used the quarry for the construction of the step pyramid in sAQQARA. other pharaohs employed Mokattem’s limestone in several eras.

Momemphis

A site in the Delta, probably at one time located near Terana on the canopic branch of the Nile, Momemphis was the scene of a battle between amasis (r. 570-526 b.c.e.) and apries (r. 589-570 b.c.e.) for the throne of Egypt. Apries had been removed from power by the mutiny of his Egyptian troops. He fled from the Nile and returned with Greek mercenaries who did not support him with enthusiasm. Apries lost the battle and was taken prisoner. He was given to the Egyptian soldiers, who killed him.

months

They were the ancient Egyptian periods of 30 days each, incorporated into the calendar by the priests of early historical periods. The months were part of three seasons and are as follows:
Season of akhet—the inundation—winter
Thoth
Paopi
Athyr Khoiak
Season of proyet or peret—the sowing—spring
Tybi (or Tobe)
Mekhir
pnamenoth
parmuthi
season of shemu or shomu—the harvest—summer
pakhons
paoni
Epep
Mesore
The use of only 30 days in each month caused a gradual alteration between the true rotation of the earth and the seasons based on lunar calculation. The Egyptians attempted to remedy that situation by adding epagomenal days at the end of the year.

Montu (Mont)

He was a war deity dating to the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b.c.e.). The pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty (2040-1991 b.c.e.) were particularly dedicated to this god. Montu originated in thebes and had two consorts, Tjenenyet and Ra’ttawy. He was normally depicted as a man with a hawk’s head, adorned with plumes and a sun disk. The buchis bulls were worshiped as theophanies of Montu. In the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.), Montu was associated with the god re and was addressed as Montu-Re. The deity was originally part of the cult of horus at Thebes.

Montuhirkhopshef (1) (fl. 15th century b.c.e.)

Royal official of the Eighteenth Dynasty famous for his tomb He served tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) and was a noble with ranks and titles. He was also related to the royal family. Montuhirkhopshef’s tomb is famous at Thebes. The site contains a relief depicting the mortuary object called a tekenu.

Montuhirkhopshef (2) (fl. 12th century b.c.e.)

Prince of the Twentieth Dynasty

He was the son of ramesses iii (r. 1194-1163 b.c.e.) but not the heir to the throne. His wife was probably takhat (2), who was buried in the tomb of amenmesses. Montuhirkhopshef may have been the father of ramesses ix (r. 1131-1112 b.c.e.). He was buried in Thebes, and his tomb in the valley of the queens depicts him making offerings.

Montuhirkhopshef (3) (fl. 12th century b.c.e.)

Prince of the Twentieth Dynasty

He was the son of ramesses ix (r. 1131-1112 b.c.e.) and probably Queen baketwerel, but he was not the heir to
the throne. Montuhirkhopshef was buried in the reign of ramesses x in a beautiful tomb containing his portraits.

Montuhotep (fl. 20th century b.c.e.)

Military official of the Twelfth Dynasty

Serving senwosret i (r. 1971-1926 b.c.e.) as a general of the armies, Montuhotep led the Egyptian forces into nubia (modern Sudan), and there he erected a stela at wadi halfa to commemorate the expedition. It is believed that Montuhotep penetrated deeply into the area, seeking auspicious sites for forts and garrisoned trade centers and for stations in which the Egyptians could control Nubian traffic on the Nile. The next dynasty would promote the trade efforts of Montuhotep.

Montuhotep I (d. c. 2134 b.c.e.)

Ruler of Thebes of the Eleventh Dynasty

He ruled

Thebes from an unknown date until his death, in the era before upper and Lower Egypt were unified. Montuhotep I was listed on tomb fragments found in gebelein and is recorded in the turin canon. His consort was sit-sheryet, probably the mother of the heir, iny-otef i (r. 2134-2118 b.c.e.), and documents from the period depict him as “the Son of hathor,” the slayer of Nubians, Asiatics, and Libyans. Montuhotep, as the heir of a Theban nomarchy, proclaimed pharaonic powers for himself and his line and established the patterns for reunification of Egypt, under montuhotep ii.

Montuhotep II (Nebhepetre) (d. 2010 b.c.e.)

Fourth ruler of the Eleventh Dynasty and the unifier of Upper and Lower Egypt
Montuhotep was the son of inyotef iii and Queen aoh, also called Yah. Assuming power in thebes in 2061 b.c.e., he began the process of restoring Egypt after the chaotic First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b.c.e.) and attacked the khety rulers and their allies. In 2040 b.c.e., Montuhotep Il’s armies took the cities of assiut and hier-akonpolis, putting an end to the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties and the First Intermediate Period.
He even led a force to dakhla Oasis in the Libyan desert to slay enemies seeking sanctuary there. This victory not only established the Eleventh Dynasty from Thebes as the rulers of a united Egypt but also ushered in the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b.c.e.). Montuhotep consolidated Egypt’s borders, fought the Libyans who had infiltrated the Delta, and campaigned against the Asiatics in the sinai.
He is also recorded as having conducted expeditions in nubia (modern sudan), where he levied tributes and promoted exploration of the area’s natural resources, including mines and quarries. Montuhotep II had Nubians and Libyans in his army, using their expertise and knowledge of the terrains involved in the various campaigns. His assault on Nubia started at abu simbel, and he cleared the Nile of foes all the way to the second cataract on the Nile. one of his chancellors, Khety, took a large fleet south to reopen trade as a result of these military actions. Montuhotep II also used the services of bebi, dagi, and Ipy, talented men of the era who served in turn as his viziers. Montuhotep II built on the elephantine island, restoring temples there. He then restored and added to shrines and temples at deir el-bahri, dendereh, elkab, abydos, el-TOD, and erment (Hermonthis).
upon completing the unification of Egypt, Mon-tuhotep ii was given the name sank-ib-tawy, “He-who-Makes-the-Heart-of-the-Two-Lands-to-Live.” Administratively, Montuhotep ii set about centralizing power by receiving the resignations of local governors and no-marchs. He left many of them in place, but they owed their allegiance to him as a result. The defeated enemy leaders were pardoned when they supported his rule over the Two Kingdoms.
He married tem (2), possibly the mother of montuhotep iii; henhenit, who died in childbirth; and a group of lesser wives or concubines, including neferu
(1), KHEMSIT, KAWIT (2), SADEH, AMUNET, NUBKHAS (1),inhapi, and ashait. He also had a rather vast harem of lesser wives and concubines.
deir el-bahri was the site of the mortuary complex of Montuhotep ii, erected on the western shore of the Nile at Thebes, his clan home. The funerary temple is now almost destroyed but was originally designed with columned porticoes, terraces, and courtyards, where sycamore and tamarisk trees complemented the statues of the pharaoh. A sloping passage led to a burial chamber, made of blocks of sandstone and containing an alabaster sarcophagus. Montuhotep’s several wives and consorts, as well as members of his court, were buried in Deir el-Bahri. The site included BAB el-hosan, the Gate of the Horse, where a shaft contained boat models.
His mortuary temple was designed to mirror the primeval mound and served as a model for later monuments erected on that site. Montuhotep ii was buried at the end of a long passage. The tomb was vandalized in later periods, and only his skull fragments and a piece of his jaw remain. A funerary monument depicting a seated Montuhotep ii and six queens was recovered. His sister Neferu (1), and a five year old child, muyet, were also buried at Deir el-Bahri.

Montuhotep II’s army

This is a remarkable collection of bodies discovered at deir el-bahri, on the western shore of the Nile at thebes, beside the mortuary complex of the ruler. Almost 60 Egyptian soldiers were entombed there in ritual burial. All of them had died of battle wounds taken during the siege of the city of hierakonpo-lis in a battle to unify the nation, and they wore shrouds marked with the cartouche and seals of Montuhotep ii, identifying them as the pharaoh’s comrades-in-arms who were destined to share rewards with him in paradise. The tomb was robbed during the Second Intermediate Period (1640-1550 b.c.e.) but then covered by a landslide, which sealed it effectively.

Next post:

Previous post: