Faiyum A (4400-3900 b.c.e.) was a cultural sequence that emerged on the northern and northeastern shores of an ancient lake in the Faiyum district, possibly seasonal in habitation. The site was occupied by agriculturalists, but it is evident that they depended upon fishing and hunting and may have moved with the changes of the yearly migrations of large mammals. Fish were caught with harpoons and beveled points, but the people of this sequence did not use fishhooks.
Mat or reed huts were erected on the sheltered sides of mounds beside fertile grounds. There were underground granaries, removed from the houses to higher ground, no doubt to protect the stored materials from flooding. Some evidence has been gathered at these sites to indicate that the people used sheep, goats, and possibly domesticated cattle. The granaries also showed remains of emmer wheat and a form of barley.
The stone tools used by the people of Faiyum A were large, with notches and denticulates. Flints were set into wooden handles, and arrowheads were in use. Baskets were woven for the granaries and for the daily needs, and a variety of rough linen was manufactured. Pottery in the Faiyum A sites was made out of coarse clay, normally in the form of flat dishes and bag-shaped vessels. Some were plain and some had red slip.
The people of this era appear to have lived in micro-bands, single and extended family groups, with chieftains who provided them with leadership. The sequence indicates the beginning of communities in the north. Mer-imda (4300-3700 b.c.e.), a site on the western edge of the Delta, covered a very vast territory with layers of cultural debris that give indications of up to 600 years of habitation. The people of this cultural sequence lived in pole-framed huts, with windbreaks, and some used semi-subterranean residences, building the walls high enough to stand above ground. Small, the habitations were laid out in rows, possibly part of a circular pattern. Granaries were composed of clay jars or baskets, buried up to the neck in the ground. The dead of the Merimda sequence were probably buried on the sites, but little evidence of grave goods has been recovered.
E1-omari (3700-3400 b.c.e.) is a site between modern Cairo and halwan. The pottery from this sequence was red or black, unadorned, with some vases and some lipped vessels discovered. Flake and blade tools were made, as well as millstones. Oval shelters were constructed, with poles and woven mats, and the people of the El-omari sites probably had granaries.
ma’adi (3400-3000 b.c.e.), a site located to the northwest of the El-Omari sequence location, contained a large area that was once occupied by the people of this sequence. They constructed oval huts and windbreaks, with wooden posts placed in the ground to support red or wattle walls, sometimes covered with mud. Storage jars and grindstones were discovered beside the houses. There were also two rectangular buildings there, with subterranean chambers, stairs, hearths, and roof poles.
Three cemeteries were in use during this sequence, as at Wadi Digla, although the remains of some unborn children were found in the settlement. Animals were also buried there. The Ma’adi sequence people were more sedentary in their lifestyle, probably involved in agriculture and in some herding activities. A copper ax head and the remains of copper ore (the oldest dated find of this nature in Egypt) were also discovered. There is some evidence of Naqada II influences from Upper Egypt, and there are some imported objects from the Palestinian culture on the Mediterranean, probably the result of trade.
UPPER EGYPT
Badarian (4500-4000 b.c.e.) was one of the cultural groups living in the Nile region in the areas of el-Ham-mamiya, el-Matmar, el-Mostagedda, and at the foot of the cliffs at el-Badari. Some Badarian artifacts were also discovered at erment, hierankopolis, and in the wadi ham-mamat. A semisedentary people, the Badarians lived in tents made of skins, or in huts of reeds hung on poles. They cultivated wheat and barley and collected fruits and herbs, using the castor bean for oil. The people of this sequence wove cloth and used animal skins as furs and as leather. The bones of cattle, sheep, and goats were found on the sites, and domesticated and wild animals were buried in the necropolis areas.
Weapons and tools included flint arrowheads, throwing sticks, push planes, and sickle stones. These were found in the gravesites, discovered on the eastern side of the Nile between el-Matmar and el-Etmantieh, located on the edge of the desert. The graves were oval or rectangular and were roofed. Food offerings were placed in the graves, and the corpses were covered with hides or reed matting. Rectangular stone palettes were part of the grave offerings, along with ivory and stone objects. The manufactured pottery of the Badarians demonstrates sophistication and artistry, with semicircular bowls dominating the styles. Vessels used for daily life were smooth or rough brown. The quality pottery was thinner than any other forms manufactured in predynastic times, combed and burnished before firing. polished red or black, the most unique type was a pottery painted red with a black interior and a lip formed while the vessel was cooling.
Naqada I (amratian) (4000-3500 b.c.e.) was located from Deir Tasa to Nubia, including Hierakonpolis and Naqada, with a large concentration of sites evident between Naqada and Abydos. The people of this sequence erected oval huts (a type used in Naqada ii as well), containing hearths, and that were wattled and daubed. There were no windows evident, but these could have been placed in the upper levels. windbreaks and cooking pots were also found.
The tools of the people were bifacial flint knives with cutting edges and rhombodial knives. Basalt vases were found, along with mace heads, slate palettes, and ivory carvings. Ritual figures, depicting animals and humans, were carved out of ivory or molded in clay. A black-topped pottery gave way to red wares in this sequence, some with white cross designs or scenes. Metal was very rare.
Naqada II (Gerzean) (3500-3000 b.c.e.) was a cultural sequence that left sites from the Delta to the Nubian border, with most of the habitation centers located south of Abydos. This sequence is marked by the changes brought about in contacts with other peoples and other lands. The period also indicates growing institutions and traditions.
Accelerated trade brought advances in the artistic skills of the people of this era, and palestinian influences are evident in the pottery, which began to include tilted spouts and handles. A light-colored pottery emerged in Naqada ii, composed of clay and calcium carbonate. originally the vessels had red patterns, changing to scenes of animals, boats, trees, and herds later on. it is probable that such pottery was mass-produced at certain settlements for trading purposes. copper was evident in weapons and in jewelry, and the people of this sequence used gold foil and silver. Flint blades were sophisticated, and beads and amulets were made out of metals and lapis lazuli.
Funerary pottery indicates advanced mortuary cults, and brick houses formed settlements. These small single-chambered residences had their own enclosed courtyards. A temple was erected at Hierakonpolis with battered walls. Graves erected in this period were also lined with wooden planks and contained small niches for offerings. some were built with plastered walls, which were painted.
The cultural sequences discussed above were particular aspects of a growing civilization along the Nile, prompted to cooperate with one another by that great waterway. The Nile, the most vital factor in the lives of the Egyptians, was not always bountiful. it could be a raging source of destruction if allowed to surge uncontrolled. irrigation projects and diverting projects were necessary to tame the river and to provide water throughout the agricultural seasons. The river, its bounty, and the rich soil it deposited gave birth to a nation.
sometime in the late part of the predynastic era, attempts were made by leaders from upper Egypt to conquer the northern territories. upper Egypt probably was united by that time, but Lower Egypt’s political condition is not known for certain. Men such as scorpion and narmer have been documented, but their individual efforts and their successes have not been determined. There was, however, a renaissance of the arts, a force that would come to flower in the Early Dynastic Period (also called the Archaic period).
THE EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD (ARCHAIC)
2920-2575 b.c.e.
The era of the founding of the Egyptian state and the start of its ruling dynasties was dynamic and prolonged. The First Dynasty, begun at Memphis by aha (Menes), was marked by significant cultural achievements. He cemented his claims to the throne by marrying a Mem-phite heiress and by instituting or reinforcing the previous modes of governmental and religious traditions that would become unique aspects of Egypt’s heritage. papyrus, writing, and a calendar were in use, and linear measurements, mathematics, and astronomy were practiced. A census, tax assessments, the reestablishment of boundaries after the yearly Nile inundations, and the development of new astronomical instruments moved the nation to new heights. The rulers of the Early Dynastic Period raided Libya and the sinai and began the exploitation of natural resources so vital to Egypt. some punitive expeditions were conducted in Nubia, as well as the annexation of land around Aswan.
It cannot be verified that the first rulers of this period accomplished the actual unification of Egypt. They ruled portions of the land and tried to gain control of the nomes or provinces that were still independent. Regions such as the northeastern Delta remained outside of their domination for a long period, as did other territories. it is assumed that the reign of kha’sekhemwy, the last king of the Second Dynasty (c. 2649 b.c.e), witnessed the cohesion of the southern and northern regions, and the confederation of upper and Lower Egypt was completed. Kha’sekhemwy also started a settlement at buhen in Nubia. Religious texts permeated Egyptian society during this period, and elaborate tomb complexes based upon religious beliefs were constructed by the rulers, who also built secondary tombs, called cenotaphs. Egypt was governed firmly by these pharaohs, with the aid of nome officials and dedicated administrators.
Art and architecture, especially the forms associated with mortuary rituals, showed an increased degree of innovation and competence. The first evidence of the use of stone in large monuments dates to this period, and the conventions of Egyptian art developed at the same time. Cities flourished, and temples were raised for the local cults and for the emerging national deities. The achievements of the Early Dynastic Period culminated in the splendid mortuary complex erected for djoser (r. 2630-2611 b.c.e.) by imhotep, the chancellor, or vizier, of the pharaoh.
The Egyptians believed in material comforts and enjoyed amusements and pleasures, tempered by the ideals of moderation, quietude, and a respect for the wisdom of elders. While they were obedient to superiors, the Egyptians firmly acknowledged an unprecedented awareness of human free will. This aspect of free will they translated into personal responsibility for one’s actions, summarized in time by the concept of ma’at. Sages such as ptah-hotep (2), who is reported as having lived in this era, wrote didactic literature extolling the virtues to the nation.
THE OLD KINGDOM (2575-2134 b.c.e.)
The great pyramid builders of the Fourth Dynasty (2575-2465 b.c.e.) erected monuments, which rise from the sands of Giza as eternal testaments to the vigor and dynamism of this age, and sent exploratory and punitive expeditions into Libya, Syria, and Nubia. A navy came into use in this era and land-based forces were frequently engaged. quarries and mines were opened, and new expeditions ventured as far south as northern modern Sudan. Mining operations and other activities for extracting foreign natural resources demanded a military presence and a commitment of men and materials. By the close of the old Kingdom the defensive posture of the Egyptian military was altered by General weni (c. 2402 b.c.e.), who began aggressive campaigns using veteran troops and mercenaries.
The last two dynasties of this historical period were unable to resist the growing independence of the provinces. The Seventh Dynasty was short-lived (having no real power), and the Eighth Dynasty could not maintain its grip on the various nomes and territories that were rebelling against this last line of kings in an effort to establish political alliances.
THE FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (2134-2040 b.c.e.)
This was an age of turmoil and chaos that began with the collapse of the old Kingdom and ended with the military campaigns of montuhotep ii (2061-2010 b.c.e.) of the Eleventh Dynasty. Following the Seventh and Eighth Dynasties, the capital shifted to the south to herakleopolis, in the faiyum. This was the home of the rulers of the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties, (called khety by some and Aktoy by others), and 18 rulers of this line are listed in part or in whole in the turin canon. The first of the royal line was so ferocious in attempting to gain control of the nomes surrounding his capital that he earned a reputation for cruelty. This was also the period in which the instructions for merikarE and the advice of the “eloquent peasant” were written.
The inyotef line, contemporaries who ruled the southern nomes in thebes, began an assault on Herak-leopolis. The last ruler of the Tenth Dynasty lost his capital to Montuhotep II in 2040 b.c.e.
THE MIDDLE KINGDOM PERIOD
(2040-1640 b.c.e.)
This new and vital historical period began with the fall of Herakleopolis to Montuhotep II, an era of great artistic gains and stability in Egypt. A strong government fostered a climate in which a great deal of creative activity took place. The greatest monument of this period was at Thebes, on the western bank of the Nile, at a site called deir el-bahri. There Montuhotep II erected his vast mortuary complex, a structure that would later influence the architects of the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.).
The Montuhotep royal line encouraged all forms of art and relied upon military prowess to establish new boundaries and new mining operations. The Mon-tuhoteps, as the Inyotefs before them, were fierce competitors on the battlefield. They campaigned in Nubia, Libya, the Sinai, Palestine, and perhaps even visited Syria on a punitive campaign. The Montuhoteps were followed by a royal line that was started by a usurper, amenemhet i. Having served as a vizier and military commander for Egypt, Amenemhet took the throne and then sailed a fleet of 40 galleys up and down the Nile to put down rebellious nomes. He built his new capital at itj-tawy, south of giza and saqqara. He also established a “wall of the prince,” a series of fortresses on Egypt’s eastern and western borders. Both Amenemhet I and the “Wall of the Prince” were supposedly foretold by a sage named nefe rohu (Neferti), who was reported to have lived in the Fourth Dynasty and promised that a savior would appear to help Egypt in a time of need.
The Twelfth Dynasty pharaohs raided Syria and Palestine and marched to the third cataract of the Nile to establish fortified posts. They sent expeditions to the Red Sea, using the overland route to the coast and the way through the wadi timulat and the bitter lakes. To stimulate the national economy, these rulers also began vast irrigation and hydraulic projects in the Faiyum to reclaim the lush fields there. The agricultural lands made available by these systems revitalized Egyptian life.
The rulers built vast pyramids at Itj-tawy and at dashur, including the multichambered labyrinth, which was an administrative center. It was an age of cultural and literary achievement on the Nile, prompted by the leadership of the royal family and revered by later Egyptians as the nation’s Golden Age. By 1799 b.c.e., however, the line had waned. amenemhet iv ruled for a decade,followed by sobekneferu, the first woman to appropriate all the royal names of a pharaoh. Her reign lasted only four years, and the Thirteenth Dynasty came to power in a futile effort to retain a grip on the nation. This royal line was listed in the Turin canon, which credited between 50 and 60 rulers to a period of 140 or more years. They continued to conduct building projects and governmental administration, but they were increasingly harassed by the growing number of Asiatics in the northeastern Delta, and in time they collapsed or served as vassals to the new foreign regime.
In xois, in the western Delta, another dynasty, the Fourteenth, contemporaries of the Thirteenth or the Fifteenth Dynasties, maintained independence of a sort and promulgated a long line of kings (76 according to manetho). Scarcely any evidence remains of this royal line, but its rulers are mentioned in the Turin canon.
THE SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1640-1550 b.c.e.)
This was an era of struggle and confusion, marked by the presence of the hyksos, the Asiatics who conquered the northeastern territories of Egypt. Manetho, the third century b.c.e. historian, stated that the Asiatics, whom he called the Hyksos, arrived in a whirlwind of devastation to conquer the land. The Hyksos did come to the Nile and did assume kingly roles, but their introduction into the land was gradual and dependent upon many factors.
slavery had been introduced as an institution into Egypt during the Middle Kingdom, whose last rulers held their power from Memphis or Thebes. While Egypt’s military powers declined, the clamor for slaves increased, especially for the feudal and priestly estates of the Delta and the Faiyum.
The Asiatics, called the A’amu, Seteyu, or Hikau-Khoswet (Manetho’s Hyksos), came willingly into Egypt as mercenary border guards, as prisoners, or as indentured servants, because Egypt offered them opportunities. As their numbers increased, they began to insinuate themselves into various positions of power. ipuwer’s complaints about the presence of the “Desert,” a reference to the Hyksos, in Egypt provides a cunning image of the changes taking place. The “Desert,” the coarse nomads, consolidated their gains and opened Egypt to more and more migrations from the Mediterranean region.
The Fifteenth Dynasty, ruling from avaris in the eastern Delta, was the royal line of the Hyksos. These kings ruled from 1640 to 1532 b.c.e. A second group of Hyksos kings ruled contemporaneously as the Sixteenth Dynasty, but exercised less political control and held limited territory. Both Asiatic royal lines ruled at the same time as the Seventeenth Dynasty, the kings of Thebes, who maintained a tight grip on upper Egypt. The seventeenth Dynasty is dated from c. 1640 to 1550 b.c.e. and was entirely Egyptian.
In the beginning, when the Hyksos and their allies were entrenched in the eastern Delta and were constructing their capital at avaris, the Thebans maintained somewhat cordial relations with them. The Hyksos sailed past Thebes on their way to the lands below the cataracts of the Nile in order to trade there, and the Theban cattle barons grazed their herds in the Delta marshlands without incident. The cordiality vanished after a time, however, and the Hyksos had to abandon all hopes of penetrating deep into Theban territories. They remained ensconced with their forces at cusae, unable to maintain their dominance of more southerly lands.
Then apophis (2) of Avaris sent an insulting message to ta’oii of Thebes, words recorded in the quarrel of apophis and sekenenre ta’oii. The Thebans declared war on the Hyksos c. 1570 b.c.e., and Ta’o II mobilized his armies and struck at the Asiatic outposts. He died in battle or as a result of an ambush, but his son, kamose, took up the war with equal vigor.
Kamose, the last king of the Seventeenth Dynasty, used the famed medjay troops and other military strategies and was approaching the defenses of Avaris when he died. His brother, ‘ahmose, the founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the New Kingdom, laid siege to the city and ran the Asiatics out of Egypt, pursuing them to sharuhen and then into syria.
The arts and architecture of Egypt waned during the second intermediate period, although the tombs of the nomarchs in the outlying provinces were adorned with vivacious scenes that reflected the continuity of life in areas untouched by Egypt’s warring dynasties. The Second intermediate period did have one lasting effect, however. Egypt was brought to the realization of the military and political realities of the age. The Thebans, watching the domination of the Asiatics in the northeast section of the nation, resolved to oust them from the Nile and to seal the borders once again.
THE NEW KINGDOM (1550-1070 b.c.e.)
The era following the departure of the Asiatics, the New Kingdom became a period of empire, prestige, and military prowess. The New Kingdom was actually a combination of three separate historical periods: the beginning of the empire, the ‘amarna era, and the Age of the Rames-sids. ‘Ahmose destroyed Avaris and put down rebellions within Egypt and Nubia, and then he set about conducting the affairs of state with a keen and energetic mind. He reduced the status of the hereditary princes and counts of the various nomes, thus putting an end to the petty rivalries that had plagued the nation in the past.
He established the viceroyalty of Nubia and conducted all other government affairs through a series of judges and governors, who were sworn to serve him and the cause of his dynasty. This early part of the New Kingdom was particularly graced by talented Egyptians who brought loyalty and dedication to their tasks as officials of the court. amun, the god of Thebes, honored by the Montuhoteps of the Eleventh Dynasty, became the supreme deity of Egypt and the occupied territories. costly offerings and gifts were presented to the god at karnak and the luxor temples, which were expanded during this era.
amenhotep i (r. 1525-1504 b.c.e.), the second king of the New Kingdom period, followed in his father’s footsteps, but it was his successor, tuthmosis i, who began the empire in earnest. He fought against enemies in far-flung lands and conquered territories all the way to the Euphrates River, where he put up a stela of victory to commemorate his success. His grandson, tuthmosis iii, would be one of the greatest warrior kings in Egypt’s history, called the “Napoleon of the Nile.”
Tuthmosis III (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) was named as heir to the throne by his father, tuthmosis ii, but he was unable to assume the throne because Queen hatshepsut usurped the titles and the role of pharaoh. She ruled Egypt from 1473 to 1458 b.c.e., and her reign was a time of comparative peace and stability. It was also a period of intense building in the northern and southern regions of Egypt. Hatshepsut remained powerful with the support of the priests of Amun and her able courtiers until senen-mut and neferu-re’, her daughter, died. Then the forces of Tuthmosis III began to press for her abdication. She disappeared while Tuthmosis was on his first major military campaign at Ar-Megiddo.
Tuthmosis III not only conquered vast territories but set in place an imperial system. He placed his own officials in the palaces of vassal rulers and brought back the young nobles of other lands to be educated as Egyptians so that they could return to rule in his name. Treaties, tributes, a standing army, a vast naval force, and garrisons installed throughout the Mediterranean consolidated his military conquests. Tuthmosis’s son, amenhotep ii (1427-1401 b.c.e.), maintained the same firm hold on the territories and loved hand-to-hand combat and sports. His son, tuthmosis iv, did not undertake many military campaigns, because the lands won by his ancestors remained firmly in Egyptian hands. He is remembered for his restoration of the sphinx at Giza.
amenhotep iii came to the throne in 1391 b.c.e., when Egypt’s empire was at its height. He was not particularly martial or attentive to his duties, but his commoner wife, Queen tiye (1), worked with talented officials to keep the government stable. Amenhotep III also cemented ties with other lands by marrying their royal princesses, including one from Babylon. His son Amenhotep IV called akhenaten (r. 1353-1335 b.c.e.), abandoned Thebes and the god Amun and initiated the ‘amarna period, a time of great artistic innovation and political disaster. He remained isolated in his new capital, where he worshiped the god aten, and the empire almost collapsed around him. When he died in 1335 b.c.e., Egypt had lost its imperial territories, and its allies had suffered severe military setbacks. After the brief reigns of Kings smenkhare’, tut’ankhamun, and aya (2), General horemhab (r. 1319-1307 b.c.e.) came to the throne. He worked to restore lost lands and to bring cohesion and order to the government of the nation. His laws were stern and effective, and he managed to lift Egypt to greatness again. Horemhab died childless and left the throne to a military companion in arms, ramesses i.
The Ramessid Period began in 1307 b.c.e., and lasted until 1070 b.c.e., with the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties. Ramesses I did not rule more than a year, but his son, seti i (r. 1306-1290 b.c.e.), was a trained military commander who was anxious to see the empire fully restored. He and his son, ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.), called the Great, took the field against Near Eastern powers, gaining territories and securing Egypt’s prominence. Ramesses II also endowed Egypt with a multitude of monuments honoring his reign. The kings following Ramesses II were not as vigorous or talented, although merenptah (r. 1224-1214 b.c.e.) stopped an invasion of the sea peoples in the Delta. The Nineteenth Dynasty came to a close with the reign of the widow of Seti II, twosret. She had served as regent for the young ruler siptah and had usurped the throne with the aid of bay, her foreign-born counselor.
The Twentieth Dynasty began with sethnakhte, who started his royal line in 1196 b.c.e. ramesses iii (r. 1194-1163 b.c.e.), another military giant, managed to maintain the trappings of empire and restored Egypt’s artistic and cultural traditions. Ramesses III was followed, however, by eight additional rulers named Ramesses, each one having little military or administrative competence. The Twentieth Dynasty and the New Kingdom were destroyed when the powerful priests of Amun divided the nation and usurped the throne.
The New Kingdom was a time of flowering, both militarily and artistically. Egypt received tribute from lands from the Sudan to the Euphrates, and vassal kings waited upon the pharaoh in his palace. The original capital of the New Kingdom was Thebes, but the Ramessids had come from Avaris, the former Asiatic capital in the Delta, and returned there to build a splendid new city called per-ramesses.
Thebes was a wondrous site, and the Greeks, coming upon it centuries later, sang the praises of the ancient capital. Homer, in fact, spoke of its hundred gates and of its eternal charms. Other magnificent sites, such as abu simbel, medinet habu, Abydos, Deir el-Bahri, and countless shrines and temples up and down the Nile stand as reminders of the glories of this age.
THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
(1070-712 b.c.e.)
After the fall of the New Kingdom, Egypt entered a period of decline and foreign domination. This era was marked by the rise of the Amunite priests, who usurped the power of the ruler even before the death of ramesses xi (r. 1100-1070 b.c.e.). These priests acknowledged the Twenty-first Dynasty kings of tanis in Lower Egypt and married into that royal family but ruled upper Egypt from Thebes. The Libyans had also intervened in Egyptian affairs and had come to hold certain territories, in time becoming the Twenty-second Dynasty. Military campaigns were conducted, especially by shoshenq i (r. 945-924 b.c.e.) in Palestine, and trade was revived, bringing new prosperity. By the end of the eight century b.c.e., however, there were many kings in Egypt, each holding a small area. A Twenty-fifth Dynasty king, piankhi (r. 750-712 b.c.e.), set out from Nubia to subjugate other rulers of Egypt and inspired other Nubians to follow him.
LATE PERIOD (712-332 b.c.e.)
Starting in 712 b.c.e. with the reign of shabaka, this era was one fraught with civil wars. The Nubians inhabited the Nile Valley, eventually taking Memphis and making it their capital. The Nubians did not actually dispossess local rulers, who were allowed to continue their rule as vassals. Throughout their tenure, however, the Nubians built massive structures and brought about a certain renaissance of the arts. Another priest of Amun, mentuemhat, rose up in Thebes and controlled much of Upper Egypt. In 671 b.c.e. the Assyrians took Memphis, destroying the Nubian hold, and forced all of Egypt to pay tribute. Egypt, no longer isolated, was thus engaged in the struggles of the Mediterranean.
Greek mercenaries, used by the Egyptian rulers in their unification struggles, had set up their own communities on the Nile and by the fourth century b.c.e. had influenced much of the nation through their skill in trade and warfare. Reunification was eventually accomplished by a new royal line, recorded as the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664-525 b.c.e.), and Egypt prospered under a central authority. The era of prosperity was not long lived, however. In 567 b.c.e. the Babylonians attempted an invasion. The Egyptians defeated the Babylonians, only to face a growing Persian menace. The Persians attacked during the reign of psammetichus iii (526-525 b.c.e.), successfully defeating the armies of Egypt. A line of persians ruled Egypt until 404 b.c.e., when amyrtaios of sais freed the Delta of the foreigners. Amyrtaios was listed as the sole ruler of the Twenty-eighth Dynasty. The Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties presided over troubled times until 343 b.c.e., when the Persians once again gained control of the land. This decade-long period of occupation, listed in historical accounts as the Thirty-first Dynasty, was the Second Persian Period.
