Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
Several authors (including Abdul-Rahman et al.
2012
; Khoo
2012
; Soon
2012
;
Stoter et al.
2012a
,
b
; Wang et al.
2012
; Ying et al.
2012
; Zhao et al.
2012
; Abdul-
Rahman et al.
2011
; Stoter et al.
2011
; van Oosterom et al.
2011
; Hassan and
Abdul-Rahman
2010
; Chong
2006
; Stoter and van Oosterom
2006
; Valstade
2005
;
Stoter
2004
; Stoter et al.
2004
) have demonstrated that indeed 3D representations
of airspace and subterranean parcels are currently required given that 2D
+
half
representations are unable to handle 3D measurements, spatial queries, or visuali-
sation. As reviewed in
Sect. 2.4
, 3D cadastral technology has emerged recently.
There has been considerable research over the past decade on the founding aspects
of 3D cadastres, and some pilot studies have been accomplished so far. Khoo
(
2012
) summarised the main aims to be achieved in implementing a 3D cadastral
system, as follows:
• To adopt an oficial and authoritative source of 3D cadastral survey information
• To adopt open source format for data exchange and dissemination
• To adopt international standards in data modelling
• To design a smart data model that supports “3D parcels” (vd. deinition in
Sect. 2.3
)
• To automate cadastral survey data processing and oficial approval
• Finally, to introduce a 4th dimension related to time towards a 4D data model.
In terms of possible 3D cadastral models, Stoter and van Oosterom (
2006
) inves-
tigated and proposed three different possible approaches: full 3D cadastre, in
which the entire space is subdivided into volume parcels and 3D rights are fully
supported by the legislation and cadastral registration; hybrid cadastre, where 2D
cadastre is preserved integrating however 3D situations whenever needed by regis-
tering them as part of the 2D cadastral dataset; 3D tags linked to parcels in current
2D cadastral registrations, i.e. 3D situations are represented externally referenced
though to an existing 2D cadastral system.
2.3 3D Spatial and Semantic Information
In the light of the international standard ISO 19152, on the Geographic-information
Land Administration Domain Model (LADM), the notion of 3D cadastre with
3D parcels has to be understood in the broadest possible sense. What a 3D parcel
exactly is, or could be, may well depend upon both the legal and organisational con-
text of each specific country (or state/province). The broad meaning of a 3D parcel
includes land and water spaces, both above and below surface. Nevertheless, a for-
mal definition can be given as follows: “a 3D parcel is defined as the spatial unit
against which one or more homogeneous and unique rights (e.g. ownership right or
land use right), onus or restrictions are associated to the whole entity”, as included in
a Land Administration system (ISO/TC211
2012
).
The term “homogenous” above means that the same combination of rights equally
applies to the whole 3D spatial unit; furthermore, “unique” means that it is the largest
