Geoscience Reference
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coastal fringes, and with the attacks on ocean biodiversity (whose
limits are yet unknown). On the other hand, the issue of the extinction
of some species makes the question of “sustainable” fishing
challenging, irrespective of the causes of these extinctions. Of course,
humans are responsible for overfishing; however, everyone is aware
that only time and protected areas will allow the populations to
recover in high enough numbers to be exploitable by humans.
Furthermore, tourism is responsible for part of the degradations, but it
is also important to offer tourists not only a high-quality environment
but also zones in which they can have the leisure to admire aquatic
fauna and flora. This is the logic behind the creation of reserves,
which are often very localized, such as the islands or islets harboring
coastal avifauna, both migrant and sedentary. The aim behind marine-
protected areas appeals to a different dimension, and in order to be
effective, the surface area needs to be large enough for the positive
effects to be rapidly felt. Most large countries now have marine-
protected areas. In the United States, for example, the National System
of Marine Protected Areas (MPA) was made up in 2009 of 297 sites
(4% in water) under various management models, e.g. the federal
State, coastal States or even non-institutional partners. All the areas
allow all the possible uses, on the condition that these are responsible,
which supposes good integration of the partners, through monitoring
of the state of the environment on the basis of well-established
indicators. The stakes in the end relate to the heritage, whether we are
referring to resources or places: historical sites are considered as
marine-protected areas. However, the hierarchy of priorities is
established for each sites: 91% strictly relate to the conservation of
resources and, the most important one, the Papahanaumokuakea
Marine National Monument to the northeast of the Hawaiian islands is
protected purely for conservation purposes. As to France, it aims to
make 10% of areas under French law become marine-protected areas
and 20% by 2020, with half of these either under fishing restriction.
This is an ambitious target that justifies the work of the marine-
protected area agency created in 2006.
Marine-protected areas are part of the general policy of ocean
protection and protection especially of nature in the oceans. These are
the institutional tools with spatial dimensions of sustainable
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