Cryospheric systems - Fundamentals of the Physical Environment - page 347

with some 98 M km 3 covering over 30 per cent at the last
global maximum 18 ka ago ( Table 15.1 and Figure 15.1 ).
They are responsible almost exclusively for mid- and high-
latitude glacial geomorphology and low-latitude alpine
mountains. Terrestrial ice may enter the sea (or lakes) and
remains attached to the parent glacier as ice shelves or

break off to form floating icebergs ( Plate 15.1 ). Modern
Antarctic shelf studies stimulate awareness of the impact
of glaciomarine environments on shallow continental
shelf seas and coastlines around former Pleistocene ice
sheets in North America and Europe. Sea ice covers 7 per
cent of global ocean area on average, to a mean thickness

Table 15.1 The size and extent of late Pleistocene and Modern ice sheets and glaciers

Area Volume Estimated maximum area of Volume

Modern ice (10 6 km 2 ) (km 3 ) Late Pleistocene ice (10 6 km 2 ) (10 6 km 3 )

Antarctic 13·50 32.0 Antarctic 14·50 37·7

Greenland 1·80 2.6 Greenland 2·35 8·4

Arctic basin 0·24 0.2 Laurentide ice sheet 13·40 34·8

Alaska 0·05 North American cordillera 2·60 1·9

USA (other) 0·03

Andes 0·03 Andes 0·88

European Alps 0·004 European Alps 0·04

Scandinavia 0·004 Scandinavian ice sheet 6·60 14·2

Asia 0·12 0.1 Asia 3·90
Africa 0·0001 Africa 0·0003
Australasia 0·001 Australasia 0·07
British ice sheet 0·34 0·8
Total 15·7 35·0 44·68 97·8
Notes: The data are compiled from a wide range of sources which do not necessarily measure or estimate ice cover or volume for the same
geographical areas. Late Pleistocene (Late Devensian) glacial maximum extent is estimated from geomorphic and other evidence. Global totals
may include other small glaciers.

(a) (b)

20°N 20°S

180°

0°

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

Southern
Africa

40°S

40°N

135°W 135°E 45°W

45°E

South Georgia

CORDILLERAN
ICE SHEET

60°N 60°S

South Sandwich
Islands

INDIAN
OCEAN

EAST SIBERIAN
SHEET

80°N 80°S

ARCTIC
OCEAN

South America

3.8km

CENTRAL
ASIAN
ICE CAP

EAST ANTARCTIC
ICE SHEET

90°W 90°E 90°W 90°E

4.0km

WEST ANTARCTIC
ICE SHEET

3.2km

FENNOSCANDINAVIAN
ICE SHEET

2.5km

PACIFIC
OCEAN

GREENLAND
ICE CAP

LAURENTIDE
ICE SHEET

Australia

Tasmania

New
Zealand

45°W ALPS 45°E 135°W 135°E

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

0 2000

km 0° 180°

Modern
ice sheet

Modern alpine
glaciers/ice

Late Pleistocene
ice sheets

Figure 15.1 Global distribution of modern and Late Pleistocene ice sheets and glaciers in (a) the northern and (b) the southern
hemispheres. The maximum ice surface elevation of each major ice sheet is shown.