Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
Table 9.3.
Comparison of emissions from cigarettes and mobile sources in the United States
(c)
Number of
cigarettes
resulting in same
emissions as1
mile of driving
c
(d)
Estimated
cigarette
emissions in
United States
d
(tonnes/day)
(e)
Estimated
mobile source
direct emissions
in United States
e
(tonnes/day)
(a)
Average
cigarette
emissions
a
(g/cigarette)
(b)
Average
vehicle
emissions
b
(g/mi)
Substance
Carbon monoxide
0.0464
4.2
90.5
61
193,000
Nitrogen oxides
0.0021
0.07
33.3
2.7
40,600
Particles
0.058
0.01
0.17
76
12,200
a
Sum of average main- and sidestream emissions in Table 9.2.
b
2004 U.S. EPA Tier II, Bin 5, light-duty vehicle emission standards.
c
Column (b) divided by column (a).
d
Assumes that the population of the United States in 2011 is 311,000,000 and 21 percent of the population smokes 20 cigarettes per day.
e
Estimated 2008 emissions from U.S. EPA (2011a).
for many pollutants. Thus, a person standing a short dis-
tance from a cigarette is often exposed to more pollution
than is the smoker (Schlitt and Knoppel, 1989).
Table 9.3 compares emissions from a cigarette with
those from a vehicle. Driving a vehicle that meets 2004
U.S. EPA Tier II emission standards for 1 mile results in
particle emissions equivalent to emissions from about
one-fifth of one cigarette. Emissions of CO(g) and
NO
x
(g) from driving 1 mile are equivalent to those
from smoking 91 and 33 cigarettes, respectively. The
emissions per day of these chemicals, summed over all
cigarettes smoked in the United States each day, is much
less than those from all vehicle miles driven each day,
but ETS is often emitted in enclosed spaces, where its
concentrations build up.
increase to 8 million/yr by 2030, with most occurring
in middle- and low-income countries.
The total number
of premature deaths due to smoking during the twenty-
first century is projected to be about 1 billion
(WHO,
2009b).
In 1986, 70 percent of all children in the United States
lived in households in which at least one parent smoked
(Weiss, 1986). Between 1978 and 2010, though, the
percent of the population that smoked regularly in the
United States decreased from 34 to 21 percent. In
the United States, direct smoking causes about 250,000
deaths/yr, 160,000 of which are from lung cancer. Most
of the remaining direct smoking-related deaths are due
to cancer of the pancreas, esophagus, urinary tract, and
stomach (U.S. EPA, 1993).
Worldwide, about 600,000 people die prematurely
each year from ETS. This represents about 1 percent
of the all-cause mortality. About 62.8 percent of ETS
deaths are from heart disease, 27.4 percent from lower
respiratory infections, 6.1 percent from asthma, and the
rest from lung cancer. About 47 percent of the deaths
are in adult women, 26 percent in adult men, and 28
percent in children (Oberg et al., 2010). In the United
States, ETS causes 150,000 to 300,000 lower respira-
tory tract infections, such as bronchitis and pneumonia,
in infants and children younger than 18 months each
year. About 7,500 to 15,000 of these illnesses result in
hospitalization. ETS also causes 3,000 U.S. lung cancer
deaths annually (U.S. EPA, 1993).
Health effects studies suggest that short-term expo-
sure to ETS results in eye, nose, and throat irritation for
most individuals, and allergic skin reactions for some
9.1.13.2. Concentrations
ETS contributes to the buildup of gas and particle con-
centrations indoors. Spengler et al. (1981) found that
one pack of cigarettes per day contributes to about 20
gm
−
3
of particle concentration indoors over a 24-hour
period. During the time a cigarette is actually smoked,
particle concentrations increase to 500 to 1,000
gm
−
3
near the smoker. Leaderer et al. (1990) found that par-
ticle concentrations in homes with a cigarette smoker
were up to three times those in homes without a smoker.
9.1.13.3. Health Effects
Approximately 1.3 billion people smoked worldwide in
2010. In 2009, about 5 million smokers died from direct
smoking-related illnesses. This number is expected to
Search WWH ::
Custom Search