International Regulation of Urban Smog Since the 1940s - Air Pollution and Global Warming: History, Science, and Solutions - page 205

benzene, formaldehyde, benzo(a)pyrene, toluene, and
xylenes.

8.4. Problems
8.1. Suppose you drive a gasoline engine car 15,000
miles per year.

8.3. Summary
In this chapter, regulation of and trends in urban air
pollution are discussed with respect to several coun-
tries. Until the 1950s, air pollution in the United States
was not addressed at the national level. Increased con-
cern over photochemical smog and fatal London-type
smog events encouraged the U.S. Congress to imple-
ment the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 and the
United Kingdom to implement the U.K. Clean Air Act
of 1956. The U.S. act provided funds to study air pol-
lution and provided for technical assistance to states,
many of which had already enacted air pollution leg-
islation, but it did not regulate air pollution at the fed-
eral level. The U.S. Congress first regulated stationary
sources of pollution through the Clean Air Act of 1963.
This act led to the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control
Act of 1965, which was the first federal legislation con-
trolling emission from motor vehicles. The Air Quality
Act of 1967 divided the country into Air Quality Con-
trol Regions, specified the development of Air Quality
Criteria for certain pollutants, and required states to
submit State Implementation Plans for combating air
pollution. In landmark legislation, Congress passed the
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970. This act required
the newly created U.S. EPA to develop National Ambi-
ent Air Quality Standards for certain pollutants iden-
tified as being unhealthful and specified that the U.S.
EPA set performance standards for new sources of air
pollution. Regulations under CAAA70 led to the 1975
invention of the catalytic converter, the most important
device to date for limiting emissions from vehicles. The
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 led to the control
of many hazardous air pollutants not addressed in previ-
ous legislation. The Clean Air Act Revision of 1997 led
to revised ozone and particulate matter standards. The
California Waiver decision by the U.S. EPA in 2009
paved the way for the first law worldwide permitting
control of CO 2 (g) from motor vehicles. State and fed-
eral air pollution legislation have resulted in a remark-
able improvement in urban air quality in the United
States. Strong legislation by the EU and several indus-
trialized countries has also led to improved air quality.
Although legislation has been enacted in many devel-
oping countries, legislation in several of those countries
is relatively new, has not been enforced, or has not been
sufficiently strong. As such, air pollution in many cities
of the world has increased.

(a) How many kilograms per year of nitrogen oxides
and carbon monoxide would your car have emit-
ted in 1971 versus today if your car exactly met
federal emission standards in both years? Use Cali-
fornia and Northeast Low Emission Vehicle (LEV)
II Standards for today's emissions.
(b) If each of 10 million cars in your city were driven
15,000 miles per year, how many tonnes per day of
carbon monoxide would have been emitted in 1971
versus today?

8.2. Explain how the three-way catalyst works.

8.3. The British Alkali Act of 1863 resulted in new con-
trol technologies for converting hydrochloric acid from
soda ash factory chimneys to reusable forms of chlo-
rine, and the Clean Air Act Amendments resulted in the
development of the catalytic converter. If air pollution
control regulation leads to improved technologies, why
is tough air pollution legislation generally so difficult
to pass?

8.4. Identify any 1-hour California state or U.S. federal
standards, health advisories, or smog alert levels ex-
ceeded by NO 2 (g) orO 3 (g) in Figures 4.13a and 4.13b.
8.5. What are two possible explanations for the im-
provements in Los Angeles air pollution between 1975
and today, as shown in Figure 8.2?

8.6. Today, what criteria pollutants exceed United
States federal standards the most? Which exceed the
standards the least?

8.7. Although more people in the United States are
exposed to levels of CO(g) than PM 10 above the federal
standard, exposure to PM 10 is of greater concern in
terms of health effects. Why?

8.8. Match each city with an air pollution-related char-
acteristic of the city.
(a) Cairo

(1) Heavy reliance on alcohol fuel
burning

(b) Santiago (2) Subject to severe desert dust

pollution events

(c) Mexico City (3) Energy sector relies heavily on

nuclear power

(d) Los Angeles (4) Severe pollution from open

burning of waste and copper
smelters