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Figure 1.3. The Wrangell-Saint Elias ice field on the Alaska-Yukon border. It is the largest
non-polar ice field in the world and shows what much of the continent would have looked like
at the height of the glaciation around 20,000 years ago (Barton et al., 2002; reprinted by
permission of Random House).
Figure 1.4. Beringia—the connecting link between Siberia and Alaska about 18,000 ybp
(Barton, et al., 2002; reprinted by permission of Random House).
mammoth, horses, bison, and other mammals. Zazula et al. (2003) reported the
discovery of macrofossils of prairie sage, bunch grasses, and forbs that are repre-
sentative of ice age steppe vegetation associated with Pleistocene mammals in
eastern Beringia. This vegetation was unlike that found in modern Arctic tundra,
which can sustain relatively few mammals, but was instead a productive ecosystem
 
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