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understanding of the EW is related to the lack of education in general, as well as
education on climate risks, prevention measures, and preparedness options. Most
local farmers do not understand meteorology and are not aware of EW's potential
benefi ts. This problem is illustrated in many scientifi c research fi ndings on DRR in
SSA (Archer
2003
; Hansen et al.
2011
; Shah et al.
2012
).
In addition, there are many problems at the local level that constrain the poten-
tial responses to EW, even if communities have access to information and under-
stand warnings (Ngugi et al.
2011
). Research from Archer (
2003
), Lallau (
2008
),
and Hansen et al. (
2011
), for instance, reveals a signifi cant lack of trust in the
forecasts at the local level and a lack of capacity (fi nancial and material) to use
climate information to pursue and develop adequate responses. The problem of
lack of trust between communities and climate experts is also mentioned in other
chapters in this topic. It was also confi rmed during discussions with small-scale
farmers located in Kenya highlands (7,000 ft)
2
, which revealed that many farmers
tend to perceive forecasts as both “inaccurate” and “valueless”; they usually rely
on their own knowledge about the local climate by observing clouds, winds, and
other proxy environmental indicators. On this matter, Hansen et al. (
2011
) and
Shah et al. (
2012
) explain that the reliability of seasonal forecasts is often ques-
tioned by farmers because of past wrong predictions and because of existing tradi-
tional knowledge.
Farmers' limited fi nancial capacities and assets to implement adequate responses
even though they may have received early warnings is another limitation. This prob-
lem is directly linked to development issues in rural Africa. Most small-scale farm-
ers do not have options to supplement their economic activities and they are often
unable to obtain the necessary inputs in a timely fashion (Glantz et al.
1997
; Baudoin
et al.
2013
). For instance, they are unlikely to buy short-cycle varieties of seeds to
respond to a predicted shortened rain season without external fi nancial support.
Beside poverty, Lallau (
2008
) and Gubbels (
2012
) have related this absence of fl ex-
ibility of farmers (regarding their economic activities) to the lack of social protec-
tion such as crop insurance in most countries of SSA. The lack of social nets also
explains why African small-scale farmers are more reticent to implement new,
allegedly “climate-proof” strategies for fear of losing the few goods they do pos-
sess. The truth is that the risks for them of changing their usual practices are per-
ceived as being greater than the risks described in forecasts, especially when those
practices have generally proven successful in the long past of their lives and the
generations before them.
As we can see, although it is essential that key actors from rural and local com-
munities be involved in the entire EWS process, there are also many challenges to
such integration that should be fi rst addressed. EWS must not only save lives or
assets but must also incorporate social protection and asset-building approaches
(Shepherd et al.
2013
). Those challenges, some of which have been pointed out in
2
The review was conducted for a survey funded by OFDA in a project “Lessons Learned About
Disaster Risk Reduction” by the CCB (Glantz et al.
2014
).
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