Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
consumption. In production terms, Fordism is
associated with the rise of mass production and
conveyer-belt technologies, which have made it
possible to produce commodities in ever increas-
ing quantities and at ever-lower cost (Harvey,
1989b: 125-129). In terms of consumption, Fordist
economies saw rises in real wages and family
incomes and the birth of the mass-consumption
era (Harvey, 1989b: 139). In the US, for example,
real wages and family incomes rose from under
$15,000 (in 1986 value US dollars) in the late
1940s to $29,000 in 1986 (Harvey, 1989b: 131). In
essence, Fordist societies recognized that it was
only through the provision of reasonable incomes
for workers that a mass market could be produced
that would be able to consume the goods that were
flowing off conveyer belts with such efficiency.
Fordism, and the new economies that it
supported, created significant socio-economic
changes. These changes can be seen at one level
in rising patterns of home ownership and the
emergence of a mass market for domestic appli-
ances such as refrigerators, televisions and toasters.
Rising levels of income also led to an increasing
emphasis being placed on comfort and conven-
ience within the home (Shove, 2003), with the
installation of central heating systems, showers
and time-saving appliances such as the wash-
ing machine and, more latterly, dishwasher.
The modern home that Fordism helped to create
- with its temperature-regulating thermostats and
labour-saving gadgets and gizmos - was a home
that required much higher levels of energy to
sustain it and thus placed a much greater demand
on environmental resources (see
Chapter 2)
.
Beyond energy use in the home, however, Fordism
is perhaps most synonymous with the rise of the
motorcar. In many ways the rise of private car
ownership under Fordism reflected the pursuit
of comfort and convenience that we have just
described in the modern house. The car enabled
people to travel over short and long distances at
times of the day that best suited them. Motor
vehicles also afforded people new levels of comfort
while travelling: particularly with the onset of air
conditioning and in-car entertainment. The motor-
car was also important because of the effects
that it had on the geographical organization of
people's everyday life (see
Chapter 6)
. Suddenly,
with the travelling flexibility provided by the
car people could live farther away from the busy
cities in which they worked. The car was thus
central to the emergence of modern suburbs, with
its spacious roads and large houses (see Kunstler,
1995). But while the suburbs, with their spacious
housing plots, gardens and garages, reflected,
the growing aspirations of a more affluent society,
they were landscapes that were much more energy
intensive. The low-density spatial forms of the
suburbs not only meant that people would have
to use more fuel to travel to work, but also to
complete their everyday chores, such as visiting
the doctors, collecting the children from school,
and let us not forget, shopping.
Many commentators have argued that the
economic downturn that afflicted many western
economies in the early 1970s embodied the end of
the Fordist era (Harvey, 1989b). After this point,
the value of real incomes received by workers has
stagnated as companies have attempted to secure
their profit margins by keeping wage costs down.
Two interconnected processes have, however,
acted to ensure that the mass consumption prac-
tices of the Fordist era have continued up until
the present day. First, the emergence of freely
available credit (whether that be in the form of
credit cards or product repayment schemes) has
meant that while workers may have less dispos-
able income, they can still continue to consume
at high levels. Second, has been the emergence
of a large and sophisticated advertising industry,
which has sought to ensure that people remain
keen consumers. The role and impact of the adver-
tising industry in supporting mass consumption
should not be underestimated. According to James
(2007: 16), in the affluent world consumers do not
need to consume 40 per cent of all the things that
are produced. Our households are already replete
with the things that we need to get by, and more
luxury items beyond that. The advertisement
