Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
of contentious decisions and plans, particularly in respect of iconic places
such as beaches and coasts (Leitch and Robinson, 2011). Adaptation plans
that apply broader principles of environmental decision-making or ecologi-
cally sustainable development and combine adaptation considerations with
other policy goals will contribute to policy coherence and are more likely to
win public acceptance.
Adaptation planning involves costly research and technical inputs.
Most of the urban plans developed to date have received funding through
Commonwealth adaptation grants programmes, and local council planning
officers report that this external funding was critical (Macintosh et al., 2012).
Even once adaptation plans for cities are developed, their implementation will
entail even greater costs. About 80 per cent of the US$70-80 billion per annum
that the World Bank estimates will be required for global adaptation between
2010 and 2015 are in sectors related to urban areas (World Bank, 2011). This
estimate relates only to the costs of adaptation to new impacts and does not
account for any existing 'adaptation deficit' in capacity to deal with current
climate variability and extremes. Some of these costs will be incremental, and
can be covered through local-level revenue raising, such as budgetary prioriti-
zation, special rates and charges, and bonds. Major engineered solutions and
infrastructural adaptations will involve large one-off expenditures. Australian
governments at all levels are yet to grapple with the challenge of financing these
options.
The urban infrastructure legacy and disaster response
Given the substantial infrastructural legacy of past planning decisions in urban
Australia and the possible increased frequency and intensity of climate-related
climate change related disasters will adversely affect our cities and towns in the
future, regardless of what planning measures we put in place. The buildings and
their occupants are already located in harm's way, so land use planning's principal
strategy of locating development away from hazards cannot realized. Our recent
experience of floods, cyclones, heatwaves and bushfire suggests that extreme
events will inevitably result in property damage, business disruption, and in some
cases personal injury or loss of life in existing urban areas, so other measures
will be needed to prepare our cities for a Four Degree future. These are likely
to be a combination of public information and education campaigns relating
to changing attitudes and expectations about the limits of adaptation and
emergency preparedness; enhanced emergency response plans and capabilities;
and regulatory controls such as a requirement to retro-fit properties (pool fencing
requirements being the obvious precedent).
From a policy-maker's perspective, the aftermath of a major disaster opens
a critical window of opportunity in which to introduce adaptation measures
and institutional arrangements, while public opinion favours strong action
to prevent recurrence. Recent disasters have triggered formal inquiries and
