A new northern security - Environmental and Human Security in the Arctic - page 41

Union, which includes issues of trans-boundary influences and cross-border
cooperation (see European Commission 2003).
The approach of comprehensive security has also been used when dealing
with internal security, i.e. security within a state and society, such as in the
Finnish programme for internal security across sectorial borders. The main
challenges for the internal security of the Finns are defined by an increased
possibility of re- or displacement (such as arising from poverty and unem-
ployment), maintenance of society's daily security, increase of accidents (e.g.
at home), foreign-organized crime and maintenance of border control due
to (international) terrorism (Sisäasiainministeriö 2004:1-15). Finally, this
extended definition and comprehensive interpretation of security is based on
the idea that there is a vast number of threats and risks to national security,
besides traditional military threats, trans-border crime and international ter-
rorism (Buzan 1991).
Defining threats and risks
Having mentioned the terms of a threat and a risk here, I should clarify that
there is a principal difference between them. Although a threat and a risk
are often taken as synonyms, a threat can be physical, economic or social in
status, but is mostly subjective and psychological, often rooted in fear and dif-
ficult to control. Thus, when dealing with a threat, it is pertinent to ask from
whose point of view it is considered a threat (Haila and Heininen 1995:167;
Nokkala 1999:48-52).
Conversely, it is possible to qualify, rank and measure a risk; in spite of
this, a risk is relative because people measure risks differently. A risk exists
in society if it is interpreted as being real, regardless of whether it has mate-
rialized (Haila 1989:10; Wahlström 1994:37-40). Risks are also conscious
calculations that presuppose an ability to control or at least manage uncer-
tainty, whilst threats may arise without consciously pursuing them. Indeed,
risks are present in our modern world; they are even said to be a part of normal
human life, which has brought Ulrich Beck (1992) to claim that modern soci-
ety is a risk society with new kinds of environmental risks emerging, mostly
due to modern technology.
New security discourses: critiques and discussion
There have been arguments against discourses on comprehensive security,
to a degree for environmental security but especially for human security. In
these debates some scholars argue that the concept of security carries such
heavy militaristic, nationalistic and ideological burdens that it is dangerous
to national security to label non-military matters as security issues (Deudney
1999). The primary concern lies in the possible application of the traditional
means of providing security to new kinds of threats. Conventional security