Virtuous imperialism or a shared global objective? - Environmental and Human Security in the Arctic - page 76

based on local understandings of insecurity and that are contextually deter-
mined, which may or may not mean intervention by state-based actors. It is a
process that is constantly a work-in-progress; and understanding this security
from a multi-actor (individuals and communities, organizations, policy mak-
ers, etc.), multi-level (state and non-state actor) perspective is essential.
Notes
1 An earlier version of the chapter was presented in 2006: Hoogensen, G. 'Virtuous
imperialism: Human security and the exporting of the “wisdom” of the North to the South',
International Studies Association, San Diego, 21-27 March 2006. This earlier version is
available at AllAcademic research. Online. Available at: http://citation.allacademic.com/
meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/9/9/3/7/pages99374/p99374-1.php and http://www.
humansecuritygateway.com/showRecord_fr.php?RecordId=15274 (accessed 23 March
2013). Referred to by W. Greaves (2012) in 'For whom, from what? Canada's Arctic policy
and the narrowing of human security', International Journal , 67(1).
2 The history of the security concept is certainly more nuanced when one examines it more
closely. For the purposes of this chapter I refer to the paradigm that dominated the past
50-100 years.
3 Canada and Norway were both leaders in supporting a human security foreign policy approach,
and led the way for the 'Human Security Network' composed of 13 member states (mostly from
the global North, but not solely). Canada and Norway's leading role in fronting this perspective
was celebrated in May 2013 with 'Lysøen Revisited - 15 Years of Human Security' (Lysøen was
the island location where Canada and Norway signed an agreement on human security in 1998).
The Human Security Network is now largely defunct, its previous website no longer functioning
(www.humansecuritynetwork.org) , though it is still included in links through other foreign
ministry or advocacy websites. See, for example, Institute for Environmental Security, 'Human
Security Network': http://www.envirosecurity.org/actionguide/view.php?r=27&m=initiatives;
Embassy of Austria, Washington DC, 'Human Security Network': http://www.austria.org/
humansecurity-network (both accessed 5 July 2013). The members are/were: 'Austria, Canada,
Chile, Costa Rica, Greece, Ireland, Jordan, Mali, Norway, Slovenia, Switzerland and Thailand,
with South Africa participating as an observer' (stated on Embassy of Austria link above). There
is not much evidence of activity since 2007.
4 C anada's enthusiasm for the human security concept and agenda waned considerably
with a government shift in the mid-2000s. However, it still acknowledges a place in this
debate, most recently evidenced in its joint participation and organization of a high-profile
conference on human security held in Bergen, Norway (Norway being another northern
state that has been an eager proponent of the concept on occasion), in May 2013.
5 Up until at least 2007 there was an active Canadian academic and policy network called the
'Canadian Consortium on Human Security' (CCHS). See the Department of Foreign Affairs,
Trade and Development Canada for the archive on the CCHS: http://www.international.
gc.ca/about-a_propos/oig-big/2007/evaluation/cchs-ccsh07.aspx?lang=eng (accessed 5 July
2013). Academic or research programmes on human security continue, such as at the Liu
Centre for Global Studies (http://www.ligi.ubc.ca/?p2=/modules/liu/researches/category.
jsp&id=6, accessed 5 July 2013).
6 See, for example, 'It's not her fault: A look at victim-blaming and rape culture', at http://
www.newbrunswickbeacon.ca/30981/fault-victim-blaming-rape-culture (accessed 4 July
2013); 'Two teens found guilty in Steubenville rape case', at http://edition.cnn.com/
2013/03/17/justice/ohio-steubenville-case (accessed 4 July 2013); and 'Political philosophy
behind rape?', at http://kaalratri.com/2013/04/20/political-philosophy-behind-rape (accessed
4 July 2013).