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their individual ecological and evolutionary paths, as long as that does
not impinge on the biological and ecological integrity of the greater
whole (Bennison, 2010: 197).
Part of the critique put forward by animal rights activists is that
animals are only treated as commodities and/or in relation to human
use. Opposed to this, it is argued that animals should be respected
on the basis of intrinsic value. For some writers, this means leaving
them alone (Francione, 2008). For others, intervention is necessary
under certain circumstances (Rolston, 2010; Anderson, 2004; see also
Chapter Four). The discussions above, however, pose the question as to
whether or not it is possible and legitimate to 'value' animals on both
an instrumental and intrinsic basis. What matters most is the ecological
and cultural context within and through which animal welfare and
human needs are constituted.
Socio-economic context of environmental harm
Environmental harms that we encounter in ordinary life are
not inevitable, but are largely determined by the ways in which
contemporary societies are organised (see Pemberton, forthcoming).
For example, analysis of Canadian environmental law and policies reveals
a patchwork of legislative and regulatory measures that fundamentally
fail to protect the environment (Boyd, 2003). At its broadest level, the
way in which regulation works or does not work is fundamentally
shaped by systemic imperatives and philosophical vision. For instance,
Boyd (2003) contrasts a model of regulation designed to mitigate the
environmental impacts of an energy and resource intensive industrial
economy, with that based upon ecological principles oriented to
reducing the consumption of energy and natural resources. The laws
and regulations in the first scenario, however complex, cannot succeed
in achieving sustainability because the system as a whole is inherently
geared to growth in energy and resource consumption. In the latter
case, the emphasis is on restructuring the economy to incorporate
ecological limits, and thereby reduce environmental harm over time.
A social harm approach alerts us to the crucial importance of societal
context in understanding the definitions and dynamics of harm. The
key question addressed by this topic is how to conceptualise the causes
and nature of environmental harm arising from human actions. In
responding to this question, it quickly becomes clear that political
economy is at the heart of the exploitation of humans, nonhuman
animals and environments - that capitalism, in particular, demands
profitable use of such as a means to assign value. The perspective of
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