Species justice and harm to animals - Environmental Harm: An Eco-justice Perspective - page 114

exhibit different habits compared to their older counterparts (Australian
Broadcasting Corporation, 2007). On the other hand, intensive fish
farming involving over-population of fish-farming ponds leads to a
rise in bacterial infections that affects the rate of growth of the fish
and may cause death (Gearin, 2005). Recent studies are also indicating
that exposure to sewerage leads fish to change their gender to female,
due to chemicals (that is, female hormones associated with the female
contraceptive pill) in river water (in the case of the UK) and sewerage
outfalls into the ocean (in the case of the US) (Pyper, 2005; Cone, 2005).
Similar types of analyses can be undertaken with other types
of animals. Getting to know more about the influence of human
intervention on nonhuman animals is vital to understanding the
nature of harm against animals. For most criminologists, however, such
questions are yet to be on the agenda.
Crime, criminology and animals
An animal welfare approach is the perspective most reflected in
criminological work surrounding animals. Closely associated with
this perspective is the notion of protection of endangered species, and
efforts to maintain the sustainability of animals in certain industries.
For example, the poaching of abalone or lobster is prohibited insofar
as it impinges upon the property rights of licensed fishers and taxation
powers of the state, while simultaneously depleting species numbers
(Tailby and Gant, 2002; McMullan and Perrier, 2002). Legislation that
prohibits the illegal trade of wildlife, particularly endangered wildlife,
is meant to protect species from criminal exploitation although why
and how species become endangered is less frequently addressed (for
example, degradation of habitats generally and destruction of local
ecology through, for instance, clearfell forestry). Intervention is mainly
pitched at the species level, with efforts being put into conserving
and maintaining viable numbers of particular species. Contemporary
zoos sometimes justify their practices on the basis of this kind of
conservation ethos.
In recent years much of the criminological scholarship in regard to
animals has been motivated by an interest in conventional environmental
crimes such as illegal fishing rather than species justice as such. For
instance, work over the past decade has been carried out in respect to:
• the illegal theft and trade in reptiles in South Africa (Herbig, 2010)
• ishing related crimes, including the poaching of abalone and of
lobster (Tailby and Gant, 2002; McMullan and Perrier, 2002)