From GIS to Web Maps - Participatory Mapping: New Data, New Cartography - page 20

the theories around maps at that time shows how
information and communication theories met cartography,
resulting in a functional understanding of maps. The
application of the transmission model to maps was enhanced
with the MCM, which was the dominating paradigm until
the 1980s, before being attacked by the same criticisms as
those voiced against Shannon's model.
2.1.1. Arthur Robinson's functional design
The cartographer Arthur Robinson was the first
geographer to consider the map as an artifact used in a
communication process. He distanced himself from the study
of the map-creation stage, which was the most common
approach, and analyzed the reception end of the process. His
aim was to improve the reception by working on the design
of maps.
Robinson began his career in 1941 at the Office of
Strategic Services (OSS of the CIA (Predecessor)), in the
United States, as head of the cartographic department. After
the war, Robinson used this experience and joined the
academic world. His research focused on “improving the
efficiency and functionality of maps as communication
devices via empirical experimentation” [CRA 10, p.54]. He
adopted an experimental methodology using cognitive
science and psychology to analyze how people perceive maps.
From his results, he suggested integrating the physiological
and psychological effects of maps on their users by working
on their symbolism and design [ROB 52].
2.1.2. Jacques Bertin's graphic semiology
The French cartographer Jacques Bertin continued this
project of improving information transmission with his topic
Semiology of Graphics [BER 67]. The topic is an inventory of