Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
of.global.shortfalls.range.from.US$1.0.to.$1.7.billion.a.year.(Bruner.et.al..2004),.to.
US$23.billion.a.year.(Quintela.et.al..2004),.up.to.US$45.billion.per.year.(Balmford.
et. al.. 2002).. A. separate. estimate. suggested. that. funding. a. comprehensive. marine.
protected-area.system.covering.20-30%.of.the.seas.and.oceans.would.cost.US$5-19.
billion. a. year. (Balmford. et. al.. 2004).. These. shortfalls. seem. to. represent. massive.
amounts.of.money.until.they.are.compared.with.the.annual.value.of.total.goods.and.
services.provided.by.protected.areas,.which.are.estimated.to.be.between.US$4,400.
and.US$5,200.billion.(Balmford.et.al..2002)..This.funding.gap.is.currently.not.being.
addressed..An.analysis.of.government.funding.of.protected.areas.in.over.50.coun-
tries.suggested.that.inancial.support.is.generally.declining.(Mansourian.and.Dudley.
2008).
Climate.change.incentive.mechanisms.open.up.a.number.of.new.opportunities.
for.inancing.protected.areas..Various.climate-related.initiatives,.both.market.and.
nonmarket,.could.be.considered.as.a.way.to.support.the.creation.and.management.
of.protected.areas..There.is.a.growing.regulated.international.market.for.biocarbon.
offsets. (e.g.,. the. emerging. REDD. approach. outlined. in. more. detail. later). along-
side.the.existing.voluntary.international.market.for.biocarbon.offsets..In.addition,.
voluntary.payment.for.ecosystem.service.schemes.for.watershed.protection,.disas-
ter.mitigation,.and.other.ecosystem.functions.have.clear.links.to.climate.stabiliza-
tion..Voluntary.environmental.offsets.for.households.could.also.contribute..Funds.
from. the. Global. Environment. Facility. for. global. biodiversity. conservation. could.
and.should.directly.contribute.to.such.efforts..There.is.also.the.potential.for.both.
voluntary. and. regulated. international. business. biodiversity. offsets. (Mulongoy. et.
al..2008).
In. addition. to. the. development. of. funding. relating. to. ecosystem. services,. eco-
nomic.measures.could.be.put.in.place.to.remove.environmentally.perverse.subsidies.
to.sectors.such.as.agriculture,.isheries,.and.energy.that.promote.development.with-
out. factoring. in. environmental. externalities.. Other. economic. and. policy. measures.
include.implementing.appropriate.pricing.policies.for.natural.resources,.establishing.
mechanisms. to. reduce. nutrient. releases. and. promote. carbon. uptake,. and. applying.
fees,. taxes,. levees,. and. tariffs. to. discourage. activities. that. degrade. ecosystem. ser-
vices.(CBD.2009).
THE USE OF PROTECTED AREAS AS TOOLS
TO STRENGTHEN REDD SCHEMES
One.particular.issue.deserves.further.attention,.given.its.current.high.proile..Forests.
and. possibly. other. habitats. contained. within. protected. areas. may. offer. important.
potential.for.funding.under.“reducing.emissions.from.deforestation.and.forest.deg-
radation”.(REDD).schemes,.although.the.extent.to.which.this.will.be.possible.still.
remains.unclear..Methods.to.measure.and.verify.reductions.resulting.from.changes.
in.land.use.and.management.are.being.developed.under.the.UNFCCC..Many.institu-
tions.already.assume.that.protected.areas.will.be.a.part.of.REDD.and.the.need.for.a.
global.network.of.forest.protected.areas.has.been.identiied.under.the.CBD.(Pistorius.
et. al.. 2008),. which. is. also. investigating. the. potential. synergies. between. protected.
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