Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
findings.
History is replete with cautionary tales of the dangers of political interference with the process
of scientific investigation, from the trial of Galileo by the Roman Catholic Inquisition for his
advocacy of the Copernican or heliocentric system of astronomy to recent creationist attempts to
undermine the teaching of evolution in schools. The phenomenon of Lysenkoism in the Soviet Union
during the early to mid-twentieth century involved a mistaken, ambitious scientist supported by
powerful political forces suppressing the work of other scientists. Trofim Lysenko was a Russian
agronomist who claimed to have developed revolutionary new techniques for increasing agricultural
yields. He rejected the mainstream scientific theory of Mendelian genetics and instead argued that
characteristics acquired during an organism's lifetime could be passed on genetically to subsequent
generations. While Lysenko never claimed that his views of plants generalized to human beings, such
a notion was convenient from the standpoint of Soviet ideology. With Stalin's political support,
Lysenkoism became accepted Soviet dogma, despite the consensus of world scientific opinion against
it. This promotion of bad science for political reasons was to the detriment of a whole generation of
Soviet scientists and the field of modern genetics.
Academic freedom is a fundamental principle of higher education, meant to ensure open and
vigorous intellectual discourse. Given the crucial role that academia has historically played in
advancing basic scientific research, the role of academic freedom in supporting the progress of
science cannot be overstated. The principle of academic freedom holds that scholars—both students
and faculty—must be free to express their viewpoints, however unpopular they may be, without fear
of retribution by their institutions. This principle, importantly, extends to the most controversial areas
of intellectual inquiry, whether religion, politics, or policy-relevant science. In short, academics—
including scientists—must be allowed to follow the path along which their intellectual inquiries take
them, even if their findings and views might appear inconvenient or threatening to outside special
interests.
Academic freedom is, of course, not without boundaries. Academics, like other citizens, must
avoid the proverbial “yelling 'Fire!' in a crowded theater.” They must obey principles of ethics in
their research. They must make clear that their opinions on controversial matters reflect their own
personal views, not those of their institution. Finally, there is no allowance for behavior constituting
academic misconduct, such as fraud, falsification, plagiarism, and defamation.
The Soviet phenomenon of Lysenkoism is often held up as the poster child for the dangers posed
when open scientific inquiry is not protected. Lysenko quickly rose to a position of great influence in
Soviet science policy; then, as director of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, he outlawed challenges to
his theory of acquired genetic characteristics. Scientists who continued to challenge his views were
purged of their academic positions, in many cases imprisoned, and in some cases killed. In the
absence of any internal scientific challenges, Lysenko's ideas were implemented as agricultural
policy on collective farms throughout the Soviet Union, and later in Communist China, where they
may have contributed to widespread famine and mortality.
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The dangers that arise in the absence of academic freedom are clear. What measures can be put
in place to ensure it, at least within academic institutions themselves? One answer—in a word—is
tenure. Tenure grants job security to those academics fortunate enough to have a tenure-track position
who can withstand the trials of a probationary period. During the probationary period, typically six
years long, academics must establish a record of demonstrated scholarship, teaching excellence, and
