Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
Fig. 4.1 Annual amount of pesticide active ingredients used in the USA, by pesticide type, from
1982 to 2001; estimates are for all market sectors (Kiely et al.
2004
)
to humans, causing poisonings and deaths every year. Annual poisoning from
pesticides, in the USA alone, is estimated to range between 10,000 and 40,000
diagnosed illnesses and injuries among agricultural workers (Blondell
1997
).
Chronic health effects from pesticides also have been reported, including neuro-
logical effects, reproductive problems, interference with infant development, and
cancer. The effect of exposure to various pesticides can induce, on the longer term,
shortened attention span and reduced coordination (Rosenstock et al.
1991
); a
more drastic outcome of such exposure includes increased risk of early onset of
Parkinson's disease (Butterfield et al.
1993
; Gorell et al.
1998
). Moreover, from
animal studies, it appears that developing brains during the cell division stage (i.e.,
during early infancy) are more susceptible to destructive impact of some pesti-
cides, which may lead to long-term abnormal behavior (Chanda and Pope
1996
;
Eriksson
1996
).
Increased risk of various cancers (e.g., lymphatics, blood, stomach, prostate,
testes, brain, and soft tissues) was reported upon exposure to pesticides (Zahm and
Blair
1993
; Hayes et al.
1995
; Zahm et al.
1997
). Children's cancer including brain
tumors, leukemia, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, sarcoma, and Wilms' tumor due to
direct or parental exposure to pesticides also has been determined (Fear et al.
1998
;
Kristensen et al.
1996
; Pogoda and Preston-Martin
1997
; Sharpe et al.
1995
;
Buckley et al.
1994
). Often, the risk of cancer due to exposure to pesticides has
been higher in children than in adults (Zahm and Ward
1998
). Moreover, birth
defects, including limb-reduction defects, have been linked to exposures to pes-
ticides (Restrepo et al.
1990
; Schwartz and LoGerfo
1988
; Lin et al.
1994
), as has a
higher-than-normal risk of stillborn births (Pastore et al.
1997
).
Usually, only small fractions of applied pesticides reach the target organisms,
the majority of the chemicals being distributed to the air, soil, and water. On such
