Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
effects and are named according to their evoked
response, for example, sex pheromones, aggrega-
tion pheromones, alarm pheromones, etc. A few
pheromones function as sex attractants, permit-
ting individuals to detect and locate mates,
whereas others induce trail following, oviposi-
tion, and aggregation in other congeners.
Pheromones have become essential tools for
monitoring and controlling agricultural pest pop-
ulations, and as such, a huge collection of over
1,600 pheromones and sex attractants has been
reported (Witzgall et al.
2004
).
In the past decades, there has been a signifi cant
volume of literature on insect pheromones and
new opportunities have arisen to explore the use
of semiochemicals in managing insect pest prob-
lems. Insect control by pheromones alone has pre-
cincts, but they can be applied in integrated
control in combination with other practices
(Howse et al.
1998
; Reddy and Guerrero
2004
).
Plant volatiles are recognized as an integral part
of the pheromone system of various Coleopteran
species studied so far. How the combinations of
pheromones and plant volatiles are incorporated
into the insects' olfactory systems so that they can
discriminate pheromone molecules alone and
pheromone plus odor plume strands and react
behaviorally to these signals is a question of
increasing importance (Baker and Heath
2004
).
Recently, the pest management system has
undergone an intentional shift from calendar-
based, broad-spectrum insecticide applications to
more holistic, integrated, and high-effi cacy
approaches. Furthermore, environmental conser-
vation, food safety, and resistance management
are a few of the key components guiding current
pest management policies in commercial agricul-
ture (Witzgall et al.
2010
).
Kogan and Jepson (
2007
) had reported that
meeting the necessities of the quickly expanding
global population while incorporating sustain-
ability and ecological stewardship is a major
challenge facing modern agriculture. In agricul-
tural fi elds, the application of pheromones and/or
allelochemicals as behavioral manipulation tools
can replace or complement existing pest manage-
ment programs (Witzgall et al.
2008
), resulting in
a decreased rate of broad-spectrum use.
Nowadays, pheromones and other semio-
chemicals are applied to monitor and control
pests in millions of hectares. There are several
advantages of utilizing pheromones for monitor-
ing pests, including lower costs, specifi city, ease
of use, and high sensitivity (Wall
1990
; Laurent
and Frérot
2007
; Witzgall et al.
2010
). Insect pest
monitoring by using pheromone lures can profi t
management conclusions such as insecticide
application timing (Leskey et al.
2012
; Peng et al.
2012
).
Pheromones produced by insects are highly
species specifi c. Virgin female insects are devel-
oping sex pheromones when expecting for a mate
and males along the concentration slope for the
female producer. Aggregation pheromones are
released by insects such as wood-invading bee-
tles to show to others the presence of a good food
source (Copping and Menn
2000
).
Some of the alarm pheromones are developed
by insects that are beneath approach from a pred-
ator and this contributes to a movement of the
insect pest aside from the production source and,
therefore it becomes dangerous. Plants and its
derived attractants are also known that interact
with the insects to a valuable food source and,
while combine with insect-derived attractants
will be developed a potent attraction to some
insect pests (Copping and Menn
2000
).
In previous studies, Mayer and McLaughlin
(
1991
) proposed that all insects produce approxi-
mate form of pheromone and companies subsist
that synthesize a pheromone for any customer.
Recently, 30 mating-disruption pheromone-
based products are registered by the US EPA as
biocontrol agents of lepidopteran pest species
that can cause agricultural damage (Copping and
Menn
2000
).
9
Conclusion
The utilization of natural products with com-
mercial value is directly manifested by the
numerous compounds present in the market and
that have remained there in many cases after
many years. These values of natural products
are considered as a source of new mechanisms
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