Recycled Water Irrigation in Australia - Environmental Sustainability: Role of Green Technologies - page 45

programme (PJ009828) with Dr Won-Il Kim at the
National Academy of Agricultural Science, Rural
Development Administration, Republic of Korea, sup-
ported Dr Kunhikrishnan's contribution.

connections with the capability to supply up to
105 ML/day during the peak seasons; it delivers
nearly half the water required by growers at
Virginia. The water is used to irrigate a wide
range of fruit and vegetables which supply local
and interstate markets including beans, broccoli,
cabbage, capsicum, carrots, cucumber, eggplants,
lettuce, melons, onions, parsnips, pears, potatoes,
pumpkins, tomatoes, zucchini, nuts, olives and
wine grapes (Marks and Boon 2005 ).
The scheme is a joint venture between the
Virginia Irrigators Association (representing the
growers), Water SA (the state water authority
responsible for wastewater treatment) and a pri-
vate company, Water Infrastructure Group, Tyco.
The establishment of this scheme in 1999 was
largely driven by local growers facing a shortage
of irrigation water.
The Virginia Pipeline Scheme has provided a
secure water resource during a period which has
been one of the driest on record. In some cases,
the reclaimed water has replaced groundwater
resources and in others provided a water source
where farmers were unable to receive a ground-
water allocation. The scheme has ensured the
long-term economic sustainability of Adelaide's
food bowl. The recycled water is sold at a reduced
rate compared to mains water. About $50 million
worth of the produce grown in the area each year
uses the reclaimed water. The Water Infrastructure
Group translates this to a $1 billion benefi t to the
district over the fi rst 10 years of the project.
Environmentally, the scheme results in 35 %
of water being recycled at Bolivar WWTP,
reduces the discharge of harmful nutrients into
the marine environment, reduces demand for
groundwater extractions and contributes to reduc-
ing South Australia's dependence on pressured
surface water systems. As one proponent elo-
quently summed it up, “The scheme has operated
for 10 years with no human health issues and no
detrimental environmental impacts, proving that
recycled water can provide a safe and sustainable
water resource.”

References

ABS (2010a) Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year Book
Australia, 2009-10, Commonwealth of Australia,
Canberra, Australia. Catalogue No. 1301.1
ABS (2010b) Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water
Account Australia 2008-09, Commonwealth of
Australia, Canberra, Australia. Catalogue No. 4610.0
Anderson J, Davis C (2006) Reclaimed water use in
Australia: an overview of Australia and reclaimed
water. In: Stevens D, Kelly J, McLaughlin M,
Unkovich M (eds) Growing crops with reclaimed
wastewater. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, pp 1-5
Bolan NS, Naidu R, Budianta D (2011) Bioavailability of
minor elements in soils. In: Hunag M (ed) Handbook
of soil science. Academic, New York, pp 11-19
Bond W (1998) Effl uent irrigation and environmental
challenge for soil science. Aust J Soil Res
35:739-752
Christen E, Ayars J, Hornbuckle J, Biswas T (2006)
Design and management of reclaimed water irriga-
tion systems. In: Stevens D, Kelly J, McLaughlin M,
Unkovich M (eds) Growing crops with reclaimed
wastewater. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood,
pp 107-123
DOH, EPA (1999) South Australian reclaimed water
guidelines (treated effl uent). Department of Health
and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
Government of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
GuangGuo Y (2006) Organic compounds in reclaimed
water and their potential risks to the environment and
human health. In: Stevens D, Kelly J, McLaughlin M,
Unkovich M (eds) Growing crops with reclaimed
wastewater. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood,

pp 159-170
Hartung W, Peuke A, Davies W (1999) Abscisic acid - a
hormonal long-distance stress signal in plants under
drought and salt stress. In: Pessarakli M (ed) Handbook
of plant and crop stress. Marcel Dekker, New York,
pp 731-747
Holmes M, Kumar A, Shareef A, Doan H, Stuetz R,
Kookana R (2010) Fate of indicator endocrine disrupt-
ing chemicals in sewage during treatment and polish-
ing for non-potable reuse. Water Sci Technol
62:1416-1424
Kelly J, Unkovich M, Stevens D (2006) Crop nutrition
considerations in reclaimed water irrigation systems.
In: Stevens D, Kelly J, McLaughlin M, Unkovich M
(eds) Growing crops with reclaimed wastewater.
CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, pp 91-105
Kim J, Clevenger TE (2007) Prediction of
N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) formation as a dis-
infection by-product. J Hazard Mater 145:270-276

Acknowledgements We would like to thank CRC CARE
for providing funding (No 2-3-09-07/08) to undertake
research on landfi ll site remediation; part of the review
was derived from this project. The postdoctoral fellowship