Bed Bug Management - Urban Insect Pests: Sustainable Management Strategies - page 16

results. More work is required, however, to
demonstrate effi cacy in the fi eld and to
develop an effective product (Barbarin et
al. , 2012).

recently introduced to the USA for bed bug
control. Although somewhat slower acting
than pyrethroids against susceptible strains,
it remains effective against resistant strains
(Romero et al., 2010).

Chemical techniques

Insecticide resistance

Pesticide use is controlled by legislation in
most countries. Pesticide users should
always read, understand and follow the
relevant conditions laid down by their
national pesticide approval body, together
with any other relevant legislation, in order
to ensure safety to themselves, the public
and the environment.

In general, the regular use of an insecticide
to control a particular insect will tend to
select for strains of that insect that are better
able to withstand the effects of that
particular insecticide. Consequently, many
species of pests have developed resistance
to one or more of the different classes of
insecticide used to control them. Resistance
of the common bed bug to DDT was fi rst
documented in 1958, to organophosphates
in 1968, and to pyrethroids and carbamates
in 2006/7 (Boase et al. , 2006; Romero et al. ,
2007). Despite the recent discovery of bed
bug resistance to carbamates and pyr-
ethroids, these classes remain in widespread
use for bed bug control. Additionally, other
insecticide classes, such as the insect
growth regulators, neonicotinoids and
pyrroles, are used, to which resistance in
bed bugs has not yet been recorded.
Since the recognition of resistance to the
conventional insecticides in the early 21st
century, control of bed bugs with
insecticides has changed. Instead of a single
treatment with an insecticide from one
insecticide class, treatment programmes
now typically consist of a series of two or
more treatments, involving insecticides
from several classes with differing modes of
action. This tactic results in improved
control compared with repeated application
of the same insecticide (Rust, 1996). In
addition, crack-and-crevice treatments are
now commonly used because they are more
likely to ensure that the bugs receive a high
dose of the insecticide, which may effect-
ively overwhelm the resistance mechanism.

Insecticide active ingredients

A wide range of insecticide classes is in use
for bed bug control. Organophosphates such
as chlorpyrifos and diazinon were widely
used for bed bug control previously, but
have now been withdrawn from use in most
Western countries. Carbamates such as
bendiocarb are still in use in Europe,
Australia and some other areas. Despite
some resistance, they continue to be used,
often as part of a sequence or mixture of
treatments. Pyrethroids such as alphacy-
permethrin, deltamethrin, imiprothrin,
lambdacyhalothrin, permethrin and others
are widely used, again despite widely
reported resistance. They are often used as
part of a sequence or mixture (where
approved) of products.
Insect growth regulators (IGRs) such as
hydroprene, methoprene and pyriproxyfen
are in use against bed bugs, despite their
intrinsically slow activity. They may be
used as a single treatment, but more com-
monly as a tank mix or premix with a
pyrethroid or carbamate. Methoprene
remains active against strains resistant to
conventional insecticides (Naylor et al. ,
2008).
The neonicotinoids such as imidacloprid
are more commonly used as insecticide
baits but there are now residual sprays
containing neonicotinoids, either alone or
in combination, for use against bed bugs
(Goddard, 2013).
The pyrrole chlorfenapyr has been

Space treatment

Insecticide space treatment involves the
atomization of insecticide liquids into very
fi ne droplets (typically 10-30 m diameter)
that drift in the air for extended periods. In
general, they are better for contacting