Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
encephalitis - has been calculated in the
USA. An outbreak of West Nile virus in
Sacramento County, California, incurred a
cost of almost US$2.3 million for 163 human
cases, with an overall impact of almost $3
million (Barber
et al.
, 2010). Eastern equine
encephalitis in Massachusetts cost over $2.5
million per patient (Villari
et al.
, 1995).
Individual lifetime medical costs associated
with La Crosse encephalitis totalled
$800,000 and the cost of lifelong neurological
sequelae approached $3.0 million per
person in North Carolina (Utz
et al.
, 2003).
The economic burden of malaria in Africa
and dengue in parts of Latin America has
also been estimated and incurs costs of
millions of US dollars annually (Ettling and
Shepard, 1991; Shepard
et al.
, 1991; Deressa
et al.
, 2007; Torres and Castro, 2007).
In addition it is estimated that in non-
urban areas of the USA, such as wetlands,
suburban backyards, parks, campgrounds
and agricultural communities, the economic
impact of mosquitoes as biting pests may
actually outweigh their economic impact as
vectors (Dickinson and Paskewitz, 2012). In
Florida, for example, the multibillion-dollar
tourism industry depends on rapid and
effective mosquito control (Floore, 2006).
Mosquito control in Florida operates at a
military level of organization and precision.
After Hurricanes Charley, Frances, Ivan and
Jeanne battered Florida in 2004, the Florida
Department of Agriculture and Consumer
Services formed a Mosquito Control Incident
Response Team that aerially treated 8 million
acres in 26 counties with 41,000 gallons
(155,202 litres) of the organophosphate
Dibrom, resulting in >60% reduction in
Culex nigripalpus
and
Psorophora columbiae
(Simpson, 2006). Hurricanes, typhoons and
cyclones are common events in tropical and
subtropical regions of the world, and organ-
izational lessons learned from Florida could
be applied elsewhere.
Mosquito larvae develop in stagnant
water, and wetlands are an important source
for nuisance mosquito breeding. The
worldwide value of wetlands is estimated to
be greater than US$3.4 billion, and their use
and enjoyment depend on mosquito control
(Schuyt and Brander 2004). Establishing
thresholds for haematophagous pest control
is complicated because, unlike agricultural
systems where pest density or crop damage
are directly relevant, haematophagous pest
control depends on individual perception
and nuisance tolerance, which are sub-
jective and variable. Furthermore, unlike
agricultural crops, where economic losses
due to pests are directly quantifi able in
terms of crop loss and corresponding dollar
value, costs of mosquito, fl ea, or bed bug
infestations are subjective and must be
calculated in terms of tourism and business
loss, quality of life, and cost of human and
animal disease (Rey
et al.
, 2012).
Panic, isolation and economic loss are
valid criteria for pest control even in the
absence of pathogen transmission. Simply
living in slum conditions affects one's
immune status, stress levels and sleep
patterns and can result in pathologies as
diverse as dermatitis, asthma and insomnia.
Continued neglect of slum populations
focuses manpower and costs on chronic and
terminal disease complications that could
have been prevented (Riley
et al.
, 2007). For
example, acute respiratory infection, diar-
rhoeal disease and infective dermatitis are
common in children in slums in Brazil
(Castro
et al.
, 2003). Children are especially
susceptible to visceral leishmaniasis, a
vector-borne parasitic disease, when they
are younger and malnourished (Dye and
Williams, 1993). A risk assessment among
slum residents in Salvador, Brazil, identifi ed
lower incomes - in addition to environ-
mental factors such as residence in valleys,
proximity to open sewers or accumulated
rubbish, and rodent infestations - to be an
independent risk factor for the zoonotic
disease, leptospirosis (Reis
et al.
, 2008).
Improving waste management, access to
clean water, and women's health in particu-
lar has immediate benefi ts and confers long-
term immunity against parasitic diseases.
The role of public sanitation in pest
control
Targeting problems commonly associated
with vector-borne diseases such as rubbish
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