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thought to be essential attributes for soil
insecticides but this has given way to baits
with dose-independent toxicity and non-
repellent insecticides with delayed toxicity.
The use of toxicants with rapid acute
toxicity has given way to those that exhibit
horizontal transfer to nest mates. Con-
sequently, thorough treatments of insecti-
cides have given way to perimeter and spot
treatments, thereby reducing pesticide use.
The globalization of trade has resulted in
an ever-increasing number of invasive
insect pests including subterranean termites
(Evans
et al.,
2013). Their study is diffi cult
because of their cryptic habits but advances
in molecular techniques permit the study
on their origin, population genetics and
colony structure (Vargo and Husseneder,
2009). In addition, molecular tools allow us
to determine the distributional patterns of
termite colonies and alate reproductives,
and the effects of baits and soil treatments
on fi eld populations of subterranean ter-
mites. With these new molecular tools the
impact of cultural, biological and chemical
control strategies can be studied as never
before.
This review will attempt to integrate
recent research fi ndings that may assist the
PMP in controlling subterranean termites.
The challenge facing the modern prac-
titioner is to be abreast of the rapidly chang-
ing knowledge and incorporating it in to
pest management strategies for the 21st
century.
termes fl avipes
is an invasive pest in Chile
and Uruguay.
Coptotermes gestroi
is also a
major problem in São Paulo, Brazil. In
South America, the native urban termite
species, with the exception of
Nasutitermes
corniger
and
Heterotermes
spp. in some
places, are less important than the invasive
species (Fontes and Milano, 2002). The
invasive species share three characteristics
that increase their likelihood of becoming
established: (i) they feed on wood; (ii) they
nest within the food; and (iii) they easily
generate secondary reproductives (Evans
et
al
., 2013). Members of these genera are
categorized as intermediate piece-nesters in
that they originally start in a single piece of
food and then search for and attack other
pieces. Another shared characteristic is,
however, their ability to utilize human-
altered wood resources.
Termites are typically identifi ed by the
soldiers or alates but the lack of defi nitive
morphological characters and collections
with both soldiers and alates together in a
given time is a problem (Li
et al.
, 2010).
Misidentifi cations regularly occur. For
example, careful re-examination of speci-
mens revealed that
Coptotermes havilandi
is a junior synonym of
C. gestroi
and that
Coptotermes travians
is restricted to native
woods in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo
(Kirton and Brown, 2003). With the advent
of molecular research tools, it is now
possible to identify and separate closely
related species (Vargo and Husseneder,
2009). For nearly a century, it was thought
that only
Coptotermes formosanus
in-
habited Taiwan but detailed morphological
examinations (Tsai and Chen, 2003) and
molecular sequences (Li
et al
., 2010) clearly
indicate that
C. gestroi
also inhabits the
southern part of the island. Evidence
suggests that
C. gestroi
was present in the
early 1900s. Thus, a combination of morpho-
logical characters and molecular approaches
may be necessary to completely resolve the
taxonomic status of
Coptotermes
(Yeap
et
al
., 2009).
The most important invasive species
from a human economic impact standpoint
belong to the genus
Coptotermes
(Rust and
Distribution of Invasive Termite
Species
In a recent comprehensive review, 28
species of termites are reported to be
invasive, 14 of them being discovered since
1969 (Evans
et al.
, 2013). Of these, the most
important pest subterranean species belong
the genera
Coptotermes
(fi ve species),
Heterotermes
(three species) and
Reticuli-
termes
(two species). Of the 77 species of
termites reported in South America, 40 are
structural pests but only 18 are considered
major pests (Constantino, 2002).
Reticuli-
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