Getting Involved: Context-Based Learning in Chemistry Education - Affective Dimensions in Chemistry Education - page 53

is hard to develop. This seems to be even more valid for female students, whose
self-efficacy beliefs in science are also found to be lower than those of their male
counterparts (Dickhauser & Meyer, 2006 ).
Context-based learning aims at relating science to the students

personal expe-
riences and values, which is perceived and evaluated positively by students (Ben-
nett et al., 2007 ; Gilbert, Bulte, & Pilot, 2011 ; Nentwig & Waddington, 2005 ).
These approaches explicitly state the change of attitudes as one goal. Especially for
chemistry education, at least two meanings of attitudes must be addressed: attitudes
regarding the personal relevance of chemistry education (see above) and attitudes
toward the importance, challenges, and benefits of chemistry for society. Negative
images of chemistry as something dangerous that should be avoided, as represented
in mass media, certainly influence students

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attitudes in this area. Context-based
learning does not neglect this but links it to positive developments and effects as
well. A broader perspective might not only influence the students

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attitudes but also
allows a reflective decision making, as explored in the final part of this topic
chapter.
Role models and stereotypes have not been taken into consideration to the same
degree in most CBL approaches yet. This link could be established by an additional
reflection of chemists and their professional fields as part of the context dealt with in
class.
The expectancy-value model, described in the next section, combines the criteria
and frameworks we have explored so far into an integrated model.

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2.4 The Expectancy-Value Theory

In the expectancy-value theory, motivation and action are regarded as driven by the
expected or desired outcomes and by the estimation of one s own expected perfor-

mance and ability (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002 ). According to this theory, personal
choices are influenced by the value he/she attributes to a certain task and the
probability of success he/she relates to a certain activity (perception of competence,
perception of the difficulty of different tasks, and individuals

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goals and self-
schemata (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002 ). Task value comprises the extent to which
an individual believes that a task can fulfill personal needs or goals. The authors
discriminate three aspects of task value: personal interest, importance (to perform
well on a task), and utility (how useful does the person consider the task for
reaching future goals).
Expectancies and values comprise social aspects as well; beliefs are formed
individually but

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in interaction with peers, teachers, or media, i.e., they are

influenced by other peoples attitudes. Eccles and Wigfield ( 2000 ) explicitly

speak of “affective memories” that influence individual expectations. Such affec-
tions are often unconscious. A student might dislike science, without calculating the
expectancies for success—but by coherently and subconsciously integrating his/her
(and other peoples

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) experiences with science. Such a broad understanding of

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