Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Worldwide, artisanal gold mining is the leading indus-
trial use of mercury, for example, in Colombia (Delgado,
2010), Brazil (Fialka, 2006), and Peru (Brooks et al., 2007).
Mercury is also widely used as an electrolyte to produce
chlorine and caustic soda from brine and is also used for
some batteries, children's light-up toys and shoes, com-
pact and traditional fl uorescent lamps, dental amalgam,
switches, and thermostats. Fever thermometers and some
medical measuring devices still use mercury; however, the
use of digital substitutes is increasing. The mercury used
in these products can be recycled, thereby, eliminating
releases that may potentially affect human health (Brooks
and Matos, 2005). Some skin-lightening creams and beauty
soaps may also contain mercury (al-Saleh and al-Doush,
1997). Information on global mercury production, use, and
releases since 1500
CE
is provided by Hylander and Meili
(2003, 2005). Statistics on annual world mercury produc-
tion, domestic import sources and export destinations, and
prices are compiled in Brooks (2007).
Since 1927, mercury has been measured and priced by
the fl ask, a unique commercial unit that was introduced
at Almaden, Spain (Meyers, 1951). The fl ask itself is made
of welded steel, has a screw cap, and is about the size of a
2-L container. When fi lled, the fl ask weighs 34.5 kg, and
29 fl asks of mercury are contained in a metric ton.
as a preservative to keep fi ne silks intact (Srinivasan and
Ranganathan, 2004).
Mercury was found in a ceremonial cup in an Egyptian
tomb that dates to 1600-1500
BCE
(D'Itri and D'Itri, 1977).
Was the mercury placed in the tomb because it was silvery,
liquid, refl ective, and needed in the afterlife? Or was mer-
cury intentionally used because its fumes, which volatize at
ambient temperatures, were known to be toxic and there-
fore, inhibited biologic activity and decay?
A kilogram of mercury, which may have been used for
amalgamation or gilding, was found near the Greek trading
site of al Mina, on the Syrian coast, which dates to 500
BCE
(Ramage and Craddock, 2000). Theophrastus (372-287
BCE
)
was the fi rst to describe refi ning and condensation of mer-
cury from cinnabar (Healy, 1978). He wrote the earliest work
on minerals and mining, “Peri Lithon” [On Stones], and
described the mining and processing of cinnabar in Iberia
and Colchis. However, the “Iberia” of Theophrastus' time
was north of Turkey, the current republic of Georgia, and not
Spain. Colchis was to the south. Later, the cinnabar work-
shops were transferred to Rome because cinnabar had been
discovered in Spain (Caley and Richards, 1956).
Native mercury was associated with cinnabar occurrences
in Asia Minor at Ephesus, Turkey, and in Europe at Almaden,
Spain. Pliny the Elder (23-79
CE
) described native mercury
droplets associated with silver and lead mines in Greece
(Healy, 1978). Pliny the Younger (61-113
CE
) described a
method of recycling and purifying used mercury by squeez-
ing it through leather (D'Itri and D'Itri, 1977). At about the
same time, mercury was used to recycle gold from worn-out
golden embroideries by fi rst ashing the material and then
treating the dampened ashes with mercury (Ramage and
Craddock, 2000).
In ancient China, cinnabar was also used for pigments
and the tomb of Emperor Ch'i-Huang-Ti, who died in
210
BCE
, contained a large relief map of China in which the
oceans and rivers were represented by mercury (Schuette,
1931). The Chinese also believed that mercury or cinnabar
medications could prolong life, perhaps because of their
preservative qualities; however, several emperors died from
mercury poisoning in their attempts to attain immortality
(Leicester, 1961). Over 4000 years ago women in China drank
mercury as a contraceptive (Simon, 2004).
Mercury and gold were used as a part of the fi nishing
process on ceremonial swords in 12th century Japan. A
paste of mercury and gold was applied to decorate the pro-
tective collar (habaki) between the blade of the sword and
the user's hand. The amalgam paste was then heated to
drive off the mercury. This process gilded the habaki with a
decorative gold accent (Kapp et al., 1987).
Whether or not mercury was used for amalgamation and
recovery of alluvial gold in the ancient world is controver-
sial. For example, Davies (1935), considered it unlikely that
mercury was used to recover gold, and scanning electron
microscope analyses of gold artifacts from Sardis did not
detect mercury (Ramage and Craddock, 2000). However, by
The Old World and Asia
Archaeological evidence indicates that mercury and cinna-
bar were known and widely used for industrial applications
before 1500
CE
. In southwestern Turkey, in the Sizma dis-
trict, cinnabar was mined as early as 6300
BCE
from what
may be the oldest known underground mine, a mercury
mine. A
14
C date of 6280
BCE
on cinnabar-painted skulls that
were excavated in the area suggests that the cinnabar may
have been sourced from occurrences in the Sizma district.
Near Ladik, also in the Sizma district, the 3 m
2
hearth of a
mercury retort, carved into marble, was found. Cinnabar
would have been used for pigments or cosmetics and the
mercury would have been used for gilding or amalgama-
tion with alluvial gold found in the streams in the region.
Thus, it is very likely that cinnabar mining and mercury
production fi rst originated in Turkey more than 8000 years
ago (Barnes and Bailey, 1972; Yildiz and Bailey, 1978).
Mercury was known in Spain before the Christian
Era, and the Moorish name of the mine “Almaden” and
the metal “azogue” (mainly in Latin America) are still in
use today. Near Valencia, Spain, well-preserved human
bones covered with powdered cinnabar were found in a
tomb that dates to 5000
BCE
(Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki and
Kallithrakas-Kontos, 2003). Was the powdered cinnabar
used because of the life symbolism suggested by its blood-
red color? Or, perhaps, powdered cinnabar, now known to
be toxic (Sax, 1984), was selectively used because of its
toxicity and preservative qualities. These properties were
also understood in ancient India, where cinnabar was used
