Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
completely eliminate mercury-containing teething and
other products, sporadic reports of their use persist. In
2003, several poisonings occurred in toddlers living in
Canada because of the use of a teething powder containing
calomel that had been purchased in India (Weinstein and
Bernstein, 2003).
and in Haitian Creole as vidajan. Rituals involve sprinkling
it around a home, wearing it in an ampule or amulet, burn-
ing it in a candle, or mixing it with perfume (Riley et al.,
2001). These practices are believed to ward off evil, provide
protection, and bring good luck (US EPA, 2002). Surveys
conducted in New York, Chicago, and other cities in the
United States and Puerto Rico in the 1990s found that ele-
mental mercury was widely available for sale in botanicas—
stores that specialize in selling herbal remedies and reli-
gious items in Latino and Afro-Caribbean neighborhoods
(Zayas and Ozuah, 1996; US EPA, 2002). A 2001 survey
documented mercury for sale in 14 of 15 botanicas visited
in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New York, although store
personnel denied that they were selling it when approached
by cultural “outsiders” (Riley et al., 2001).
There has been disagreement over how extensively
elemental mercury is used by the general Latin American
and Afro-Caribbean populations (Wendroff, 1997). In a
study of 100 children from a New York City neighborhood
where botanicas are common, 3 had urine mercury lev-
els over 10 µg/L (Ozuah et al., 2003). However, the 95th
percentile for the sample (2.8 µg/L) was lower than the
95th percentile measured in a population-based study of
German children from 1990-1992 (3.9 µg/L), which was
conducted prior to Germany's elimination of mercury
amalgams for dental restoration in children (Schulz et al.,
2007b). Nonetheless, it is plausible that mercury vapor
is present in homes where the metal has been used for
ritualistic purposes, especially when large amounts, high
temperatures, and frequent activities are involved (Riley
et al., 2001). In contrast, infrequent practices with small
amounts are not likely to result in mercury vapor con-
centrations above the US EPA reference level (0.3 µg/m
3
)
(Riley et al., 2001). Results from two studies of children
living in areas of New York and Chicago where botanicas
are common did not support the notion that use of ele-
mental mercury is widespread (Rogers et al., 2007, 2008).
Elemental mercury can vaporize, particularly when
agitated or heated, and inhalational exposures can result
in high urine and blood concentrations (Forman et al.,
2000). Vaporized mercury crosses blood-brain and placen-
tal barriers. It has a whole-body half-life of about 60 days
(Clarkson and Magos, 2006). The central nervous system
and kidney are the primary targets of toxicity (Solis et al.,
2000; Clarkson and Magos, 2006).
Mercury in Skin Care Products and Antiseptics
Mercury compounds have also long been used in skin care
products and antiseptics (Goldwater, 1972; IPCS, 1991).
Mercuric chloride was used to disinfect diapers and as a
treatment for diaper rash until the 1950s, when it became
known that such use could also cause acrodynia in sensitive
children (Clarkson, 2002). Mercurochrome is an organo-
mercurial that was used for treating minor cuts and scrapes
in the United States until 1998, when the FDA declared
that it was “not generally recognized as safe and effective.”
Mercury compounds are used as preservatives in some
eyedrops, nasal sprays, and contact lens solutions. Skin-
lightening creams that contain inorganic mercury com-
pounds are used in many parts of the Middle East and Asia,
the Caribbean and Latin America, and Africa (IPCS, 1991).
In the United States, it is illegal to sell any skin care product
that contains more than 1 ppm mercury, with the exception
of cosmetics or drops for the eye area, which may contain up
to 65 ppm. However mercury-containing creams and soaps
remain unregulated and available in other countries (IPCS,
1991). These products have been identifi ed on the shelves
of stores on the U.S.-Mexican border and in New York City
(McKelvey et al., 2010; Weldon et al., 2000). Several poison-
ing incidents have been traced to the use of skin-lightening
creams (6-10% mercury by weight) that were brought into
the United States from the Dominican Republic and Mexico
(NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2005;
CDC, 1996). In a 1997 survey of Hispanic communities on
the Texas-Mexico border, 5% of households reported that
at least one person had used a mercury-containing skin-
lightening cream in the past year (Weldon et al., 2000).
Inorganic and organic mercury compounds used in skin
care products and antiseptics are easily absorbed through
the skin. Low concentrations of inorganic compounds
do not readily cross the blood-brain barrier or the pla-
centa, and prolonged cutaneous exposure—similar to oral
routes of exposure—most typically results in kidney dam-
age. However, there have been instances when long-term
dermal exposure accompanied by high urine levels has
been associated with nervous system dysfunction as well
(Weldon et al., 2000; Kern et al., 1991).
Occupational Exposures and Elemental
Mercury Spills
A famous example of occupational exposure to mercury
dates back to the 17th century, when mercuric nitrate was
used to turn fur into felt in the manufacture of fur felt hats
(Goldwater, 1972). The psychological symptoms that some-
times developed as a result of exposure have been referred to
as “Mad Hatter's Disease.” Recognition of this occupational
hazard in the hat manufacturing industry led the US Public
Ritualistic or Cultural Use of Elemental Mercury
Elemental mercury may be used in certain Afro-Caribbean
and Latin American traditions, including santeria, espirit-
ismo, palo mayombe, and voodoo (US EPA, 2002; Newby et
al., 2006). It is sometimes referred to in Spanish as azogue
