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deteriorates as a result of interaction with other components of the system or just
thermodynamic decay. This biological evolution is a much faster process than
physical- chemical evolution.
Likewise, some biologists believe that humans can be conceptualized as just
another type of biological species. Although it is also true that humans are biologi-
cal entities that store, reproduce, and transfer genetic information, they also store
and encode information in the form of a symbolic language with a highly complex
syntactic structure (Maass 2012 ). This ability of humans to store and share cultural
information allows them to generate knowledge and develop technology in a pro-
gressive way without precedence in the history of life on our planet (Ehrlich 2002 ).
In the same way as living nature is a biological-physical-chemical phenomenon,
human nature is a socio-cultural-biological-physical-chemical phenomenon (Maass
2012 ). And in the same way living organisms cannot exist without their physical-
chemical matrix, humans cannot live without their ecosystem matrix (O'Neill
2001 ). From a system perspective an ecosystem is the result of living and non-living
entities interacting in time and space at different hierarchical scales (Odum 1953 ,
1969 ). Ecosystems are as small as a drop of water (or even smaller as a group of
bacteria interacting in a corner of a cell wall), or as large as the entire planet. From
the same system perspective, a socioecosystem is the result of humans and ecosys-
tems interacting in time and space at different hierarchical scales. Socioecosystems
are as small as a farmer with his family interacting with his agricultural piece of
land, and as large as the entire planet (and beyond, if we consider the satellites, the
International Space Station, and other human made space crafts visiting the Moon,
Mars, and other planets).
We see humans as embedded in socioecosystems, recognizing their sociocultural-
biological-physical nature. The recognition of this complex, multi-level and highly
integrated socio-bio-physical entities, require new epistemological frameworks to
properly study and deal with them.
14.3
The Epistemological Paradigm of Transdisciplinary
Research: A Must for the Study of Socioecosystems
Required for an Earth Stewardship Initiative
Scientifi c research has evolved in its attempt to deal with this new ontological para-
digm, which implies the study of these highly coupled socio-ecological systems, or
“socioecosystems”, as we like to call them. Changes occurred as early as the middle
of the last century when the systems approach appeared in the scientifi c arena
(Bertalanffy 1950 ). However, these changes have gained important momentum in
the last 20 years. This shift in the way we do science has happened in different
aspects of our scientifi c endeavor, including: the philosophical approach we use to
observe our world; the level of commitment we put in our scientifi c work; the extent
and scope we envision in our research goals; the geographical scale and context in
which we focus our case-studies; the type of collaboration we engage in with other
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