Information Technology Reference
In-Depth Information
and through the actions of self-organizing groups that respond to ethical breaches
when they do occur.
The most conspicuous form of unethical behaviour in computing is plagiarism,
because it steals work from other scientists and the hurt to others is obvious.
(Also, it is relatively easy to detect.) However, other forms of misconduct are
arguably as pervasive. One is abuse of power, such as when senior academics insist
on being listed as authors of papers they have not contributed to. Another is fraud,
in which claimed results were not in fact observed, or are much less substantial
than was claimed. In medicine, fraud is viewed as serious because of the poten-
tial consequences—deaths and vast financial liabilities—and because of high-profile
cases inwhich fraud has been detected. In computer science, there is also the potential
for such issues. The safety, reliability, and security of computer systems is increas-
ingly a central element of our social and physical infrastructure. Researchers who
make grandiose claims based on poor evidence and whose work is subsequently used
in practice are creating risks, and may be held responsible for the consequences.
Issues of ethical concern for science in general include misrepresentation, plagia-
rism and self-plagiarism, authorship, confidentiality and conflict of interest, harrass-
ment and abuse of power, and use of human subjects. The ethics of studies of human
subjects are complex, and are beyond the scope of this topic. The other issues are
discussed in this chapter.
It would be satisfying to be able to give a formula for handling ethical issues.
However, the two principal pieces of advice on this topic contradict each other. One
is that problems that at first sight seem to be intractable ethical conflicts often turn
out to be more superficial; it is sensible to wait and reflect before pursuing action.
The other piece of advice is that unresolved tensions can fester, with the potential to
permanently damage a relationship; it is sensible to take steps before too much harm
is done.
A difficulty in resolving such issues is the imbalance between advisor and student,
or between senior and junior academics. If you believe that there is an issue that
cannot be resolved fairly by a direct approach, you need to seek confidential advice
and support, preferably from a senior academic who knows the individuals involved
and has an understanding of the norms of research in that field. It can be difficult
to take this step, but it is essential. Keep in mind that public accusation, justified or
otherwise, can end a career. Mishandled, a genuine grievance can become a scandal
in which any of the participants is a potential victim. Moreover, while issues such
as whistleblowing and breaches of research ethics can be highly politicized, and it
can be intimidating to approach a senior figure with accusations about a colleague,
it is far better to discuss problems with a trusted figure than to let rumour, or silence,
destroy relationships or reputations.