1940 to 1949: Computing During World War II and the Postwar Era - The Technical and Social History of Software Engineering - page 67

been ordered to cease combat. Since the U-853 sank in water that is 121 feet deep,
the hull can still be seen by scuba divers who are certified for deep dives, although
this dive is dangerous and should not be attempted by amateurs. There may also
be torpedoes and naval cannon shells still onboard, which become unstable with
time.
There are only a few working examples of digital computers that the United
States completed during the war. The first of the U.S. digital computers was not
aimed specifically at military uses but rather to solve linear equations. This com-
puter was designed in 1937 by John Atanasoff of Iowa State University. A gradu-
ate student, Clifford Berry, assisted in the construction of the computer. It was
called the ABC computer after the initials of the inventors.
The ABC computer was finished in 1942 but was not programmable and hence
was not Turing complete. However, it did use binary arithmetic and featured par-
allel processing. It had separate memories for intermediate data and instructions.
All calculations were electronic, using vacuum tubes, and did not involve wheels
or moving mechanical parts. The ABC could add or subtract at a rate of about 30
calculations per second.
As will be discussed in the chapters about the 1960s and '70s, this computer
figured prominently in a patent lawsuit between Sperry-Rand and Honeywell. The
judge's decision included a statement that the ABC was the first digital com-
puter, which triggered a controversy still not entirely settled in 2013. The judge
stated that Atanasoff was the original developer of electronic computers, which
cast doubt on the contributions of Zuse, Mauchly, and Eckert.
In 1942, both the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Air Force established formal oper-
ations research groups to apply mathematical methods to the analysis of combat
operations. The Navy group analyzed submarine warfare and the Air Force group
analyzed bombing and fighter operations. These studies led to innovations in com-
bat patrol logistics and also to the most effective formations for combat aircraft.
It would not be until later decades that digital computers and software would be
powerful enough to contribute to the solutions of operations research problems.
The next digital computer in the United States was the ENIAC. It was started
in 1943 in order to calculate artillery ballistics. It was funded by the United States
Army Ballistic Research Agency. ENIAC was not completed until 1946 and so
missed World War II service. However, once operational at the Aberdeen Proving
Ground, the ENIAC worked well until 1955.