EFFICIENCY AND EVALUATION - Total-Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis and Related Methods - page 420

fluorescence—Principles and definitions. It is available from Beuth-Verlag,
under http://www.beuth.de/de/norm/din-51003/69485626 . It may also be men-
tioned that the VDI/VDE in Germany (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure/Verband
der Elektronik Informationstechnik) has developed and published a guideline
“Röntgenoptische Systeme”or“X-Ray optical systems.”It has the designation
VDI/VDE 5575 and is also available from Beuth-Verlag. Page 1 is related to
terms and definitions, page 2 is concerned with assembly and measuring
methods for the characterization of X-ray optical systems including X-ray
sources and X-ray spectral analysis, and page 3 describes X-ray capillaries.
Finally, it may be underlined that good laboratory practice (GLP) is a must
for professional analytical determinations in a laboratory. Quality management
and assurance are a matter of course. Analytical determinations should be
performed in accord with a standard operating procedure (SOP). Such an
instruction describes the respective sequence of operations exactly. Any
operation has to be documented in a protocol that has to be underlined by
two persons. The staff members carrying out the operation have to be informed
and trained regularly, and alterations have to be approved and documented.
SOPs are normally used in clinical studies and pharmaceutical processes. They
are the base for an ISO or DIN standard. Industrial laboratories, manufactur-
ers, and supplying companies can be certified according to ISO/TS 16949.
6.3.5InternationalCooperationandActivity
Especially in the semiconductor industry, new materials and components are
produced with ever-decreasing structures for the production of nanoscaled
integrated circuits. According to Moore's law from 1965, the number of
transistors on a chip is doubled every 18 to 24 months. Consequently, the
dimensions of microelectronic structures are decreased exponentially, which is
put down in the International Technology Roadmap of Semiconductors
(ITRS). By contrast, the dimensions of substrates, especially of wafers, are
increasing in order to reduce the manufacturing costs. Wafers with a diameter
of 310 mm and even of 450 mm are produced today.
A number of analytical methods (optical, electrical, X-ray, electron beam,
and ion beam techniques) are suitable for investigations of such materials and
components. Since 2009, efforts were made to bundle several complementary
competencies within Europe in order to control material properties down to
atomic dimensions. Several partners joined the European Integrated Activity
of Excellence and Networking for Nano- and Microelectronics Analysis
(ANNA). Particular common tasks were: (1) the production of a large set
of wafers intentionally contaminated with various transition metals and light
elements; and (2) the determination of these elements by different analytical
techniques including TXRF [114]. A uniform distribution of the impurities, low
detection limits, and a reliable quantification were sought. Aluminum and
sodium as light elements and Ti, Fe, Cu, Ni, and Mo as transition metals were
determined as impurities.“Impurity free”surfaces could be guaranteed for