Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
Popper (
1969
, pp. 406-407) presented his view in the following
simplified diagram:
P
1
→ TT → EE → P
2
where P
1
is a first problem, TT the tentative theories that are offered
to solve P
1
, EE the elimination process where the theories are exposed
to falsification tests, and P
2
the new problem which emerges from
the exposed errors of TT. New theories have then to be found to solve
P
2
and so on indefinitely.
The account provided by Kuhn is quite different (see Kuhn,
1970
,
1994
). He sees scientific development not as characterized by
a succession of falsifications, but by a succession of traditions, i.e.
periods of normal scientific activities punctuated by revolutionary
alterations.
His vision of the way science progresses may be summarized
in bare outlines as follows: the pre-scientific period is characterized
by disagreement and constant debate over fundamentals, like basic
problems to be solved, methods, results and theories, making it
impossible to get down to detailed scientific work. Eventually,
however, this disorganization becomes structured and directed
when a single paradigm, i.e. a theoretical framework or 'discipli-
nary matrix', is adhered to by a scientific community. The paradigm
guides the scientists with regard to basic questions, methods and
hypotheses that should be adopted. In this first 'normal' scientific
period, scientists articulate and develop the paradigm through
painstaking and detailed experimental research. The scope of the
scientific knowledge is thereby extended and the precision of the
scientific statements sharpened, but the scientists do not aim at
unexpected facts and new theories, and when successful, find none.
To bear the burden of this esoteric and time consuming endeavour,
the 'normal scientist' must be devoted and uncritical of the paradigm
within which he works. Indeed, a failure to solve a problem in his
research tends to be seen as a personal failure, rather than as an
inadequacy of the paradigm. Fundamental anomalies in the fit
