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example, product specifications and pricing are
explicit, while skills to identify prospects, develop
relationships, and make sales are largely tacit. The
relationships between explicit and tacit knowledge
led to the “SECI” model (Nonaka, 1991; Nonaka
& Takeuchi, 1995):
resources, and high-level champions, although it
may be harder to convince people to invest the
time and energy in a system when the individual
benefits are not yet clear. As KM priorities have
shifted and the cost of supporting IT systems has
decreased, it has become easier and more common
to start bottom-up, using small, self-selected pilot
projects in which small groups address problems
or opportunities that matter to them. Such proj-
ects generally require fewer resources, can start
quietly, and can be extended once they have
proven themselves. The author has worked with
multiple organizations (including both SalesCom
and EnginCom) where a wiki-based KM platform
was installed on an extra desktop or laptop in a
few days.After the system is properly configured,
adding additional groups or projects is simple.
Once the value of the system is clear, it is much
easier to obtain resources and other support to
expand and improve the system.
KM can be distinguished from other manage-
ment trends by three characteristics (Snowden,
2006). First, KM has origins in several different
domains. Second, KM focuses more on improving
productivity. Third, KM encourages distributed
collaboration rather than centralized control and
IT systems. However, Snowden also argues that
technology and other standards have been em-
phasized prematurely, and that the SECI is not a
good general model for KM.
•
S
ocialization: Tacit → Tacit
•
E
xternalization (or articulation): Tacit →
Explicit
•
C
ombination: Explicit → Explicit
•
I
nternalization: Explicit → Tacit
Despite this shift in emphasis, over half of KM
systems failed to meet expectations, often due to
problems with user training and education (KPMG,
2000; summarized in Koenig, 2001). More re-
cently, KM has shifted to focus on collaboration
and interaction, since it is often easier and cheaper
to help individuals and groups quickly locate others
with relevant knowledge, rather than attempting
to codify and catalog knowledge that may not be
needed or used. Thus, Frappaolo (2006) identifies
four ways to use or apply knowledge:
1.
Intermediation:
connect knowledge seekers
with providers
2.
Externalization:
capture knowledge in
external repository
3.
Internalization:
extract knowledge from
external repository
Wikis
4.
Cognition:
apply knowledge to make
decisions
A
wiki
is a web site with several distinctive features.
(To distinguish the site from the supporting soft-
ware, the latter is referred to as the
wiki platform
.)
First, and most notably, wiki pages (also called
topics) can be created, edited, and linked together
using a standard web browser, with little or no
specialized knowledge or experience. Initially,
most wiki platforms used plain text or simplified
markup conventions, but increasingly they include
or support graphical text editors. Second, wikis
store all previous versions of each page, including
For example, at SalesCom knowledge is exter-
nalized when a sales representative adds notes from
a sales call to a KM system, and internalized when
another rep accesses those notes. Intermediation
occurs when the second rep contacts the first to
learn more, and cognition occurs when the reps
change their tactics based on this knowledge.
KM projects that require significant up-front
investments are usually initiated top-down,
which also provides higher visibility, access to
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