Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
of tools to support city leaders and practitioners in addressing the impact of
climate change (adaptation) and to help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
( mitigation) [10].
2.3 Cities and Energy Consumption: The Microlevel
Within planning research, it is commonly assumed that the design and
location of residential areas have important consequences for households'
energy consumption for housing and transport. It is believed that physical
planning and design make it possible to achieve a more sustainable con-
sumption pattern. Mainly there are four distinct consumption categories:
energy use for cooling/heating and operating the house; energy use for
everyday travel; energy use for long leisure-time travel by plane; and energy
use for long leisure-time travel by car.
2.3.1 Urban Pattern
In their study of the relationship between urban planning and energy
consumption, Holden and Norland pose the question: Does the change of
urban forms tend to reduce the frequency and length of journeys and, hence,
energy consumption? To this day, the disagreement persists and the critiques
against planning have many different forms, including [11]:
1. Claims that engine technology, taxes on gasoline and driving,
and road pricing are more effective measures for reducing energy
consumption than urban planning [12,13].
2. The assertion that socioeconomic and attitudinal characteristics of
people are far more important determinants of travel behaviour than
urban form. Critics in this matter emphasise that the importance of
form is highly overestimated in empirical studies [14].
3. Casting doubt on the assumption that proximity to everyday ser-
vices and workplace will contribute to reduced travel in a highly
mobile society [15,16].
4. That the relationship between non-work travel, especially long
leisure-time travel, and urban form has been neglected [17].
5. The assertion that travel preferences rather than urban form influ-
ence travel behaviour: People live in city centres because they prefer
to travel less, and not that they travel less because they live in city
centres (the 'self-selection bias') [13].
Even though these aspects should not be taken lightly, there seems to
be overwhelming support in the literature for the idea that planning does
