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Figure 2. Hypothesised relationship between a driver's exposure to an environment and their spatial
knowledge when using either an active or passive navigation system
Figure 3. Hypothesised relationship between a driver's exposure to an environment and their task de-
mands (workload) when using either an active or passive navigation system
mands are likely to drop distinctly, such that there
is no longer a requirement for the use of external
information (what I call the 'point of indepen-
dence'). In contrast, with passive navigation,
whilst task demands are relatively low, spatial
knowledge does not develop at the same rate and
there is a much longer exposure period where
drivers need to use the external information source.
Furthermore, it is predicted that task demands do
not reach the low levels ultimately achieved when
using more active forms of navigation.
Following on from these points, it is argued
that future work should consider the design and
evaluation of more revolutionary user-interfaces
for vehicle navigation systems. Specifically, there
are clear merits in developing active, learning-
oriented user-interfaces for vehicle navigation
systems, as an alternative to the current passive
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