Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
Some evolutionary biologists suggest that morality is a product of natural forces
acting through evolution at both the level of individuals and the level of groups of
individuals. The basic argument is that those behaviours that increase the probability
of survival and reproduction become selected for during evolution. Some of these
behaviours are linked to emotional states such as guilt and empathy, so that to us
these emotions appear compelling. It is hypothesized that all social animals, from
ants to elephants, have modified their behaviour to become less “selfish” because
this increases the survival of the group as a whole. On this view, human morality
is a natural phenomenon that evolved to increase human co-operation by restricting
selfishness.
Individual humans are physically weak and not specialised for running or com-
bat in the way that many other animals are. One of the reasons that, despite these
limitations, humans are so successful, is because they co-operate with one another.
A simple example is described in the essay
The Biological Basis for Morality
by the
biologist, Edward O. Wilson, which is freely available online.
Imagine a Paleolithic band of five hunters. One considers breaking away from the others
to look for an antelope on his own. If successful, he will gain a large quantity of meat and
hide - five times as much as if he stays with the band and they are successful. But he knows
from experience that his chances of success are very low, much less than the chances of
the band of five working together. In addition, whether successful or not, he will suffer
animosity from the others for lessening their prospects. By custom the band members stay
together and share equitably the animals. So the hunter stays.
We know from experiments with non-human animals that behaviour is partly
determined genetically, so if the tendency of humans to co-operate has a genetic
component, it follows that genes predisposing people to behave in this way will
increase in frequency in the human population. Over thousands of generations,
such increases produce those emotions that underlie moral behaviours such as co-
operation. In other words, moral feelings are more accurately described as moral
instincts. We experience these instincts as conscience, self-respect, shame and
outrage. Further discussion of the naturalistic origins of moral behaviour among
humans can be found in the topic
The Origins of Virtue
by Matt Ridley (see the
Further Reading).
A vital by-product of the strong human tendency to co-operate with one another
is the development of technology. If you compare the behaviour of humans with
that of other animals, it is clear that we have become the dominant species on the
planet because we can control our environment by means of technology. Thus the
success of the human species today depends upon co-operation, even to the extent
of putting the interests of the community above that of the individual. This survival
advantage of co-operation would have been especially important when early humans
were evolving over several million years on the African savannah. Which brings me
to evolution.
