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Fig. 14.6 Three elements of expectancy theory
The third element is valence, which is a positive or negative value an individual
places on a reward. Regarding valence, there can be two types of rewards and
valences for information-offering. One reward is gratitude from others, and the
other is improvement in information-handling skills and the resulting feeling of
achievement. The former has a high valence for offline contributors, and the latter
has a tendency to have a strong valence for online contributors.
Instrumentality for gratitude tends to be increased when contributors are aware
that specific information is required by others. On the other hand, instrumentality
for improving information-handling skills can be subject to contributors' individual
attributes. Thus, the degree of instrumentality depends on which kind of contributor
will offer information (Fig. 14.7 ). However, even if instrumentality and valence are
of a high degree for a contributor, if the contributor's expectancy is very low,
information-offering will not be undertaken. This indicates that expectancy is the
most important element relating to whether information is offered.
14.8 Cost of Information Behavior and Information
Prospectability
We consider expectancy of information-offering to be affected by the costs of
information behavior and information prospectability.
Contributors' information behavior is divided into three acts in this study
(Fig. 14.8 ). The first is discerning desired information, or scanning gathered
information. By this act, contributors can understand what types of information
are needed. The second is additional searching. The third is offering information.
Each act has its own cost and contributors estimate the cost to them. They decide
whether to act by comparing each estimated cost and valence acquired in
performing a particular information behavior. If the information required for the
HFS process is specific, and a participant is convinced that he or she already has that
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