The UK Biological Weapons Program - Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons Since 1945 - page 82

been the pathogenic agent Francisella tularensis, enough cells would sur-
vive to present a hazard. 147
The scientists next investigated the fate of bacterial cells on the clothing
of crew after a ship had passed through a cloud of bacteria. 148 This trial,
on HMS Achilles, took place over four days in January 1973. On the
fourth day the vessel spent about an hour in the bacterial cloud. The trial
investigators concluded that a “ship in the normal ventilation condition is
vulnerable to biological operations, and showed that the outer clothing of
men exposed on the upper deck and in the machinery spaces was invari-
ably contaminated with microorganisms.” 149
From indirect exposure of crews to clouds of bacteria, the scientists
moved on to assess direct contamination of individuals with microorgan-
isms. Tests were carried out mainly at Porton, although a few took place
on ships. 150 An initial series of tests in 1974 demonstrated that the spores
of B. globigii could penetrate inner and outer layers of clothing and settle
onto hair. A second series of tests, under the codename Gondolier, took
place in 1976 in Portsmouth, where “the trials subjects were all young
males with about three months of basic naval training.” 151 In six batches
of five people, the men were sprayed for about four and six minutes with
B. globigii. 152 Sampling from air and clothing confirmed that there was
contamination of the outer clothing and from secondary aerosols, which
arose during undressing. 153 Similar trials continued for another year, after
which, according to the open literature, the series was terminated.
Other aspects of the British program were also drawing to a close at
this time. In 1976 plans were laid to close the MRE within two years. 154
The BRAB was dissolved in 1977. Work at the MRE did continue, but
now under successive reviews of its future, and in 1979 the Establish-
ment was reconstituted. 155 A small Defence Microbiology division was
created within the Chemical Defence Establishment (CDE) to focus on
defense research, while the majority of staff from the MRE remained
within a new Centre for Applied Microbiology and Research. During the
1980s and 1990s military leaders regarded the threat from biological war-
fare as increasingly prominent, and consequently defensive research re-
ceived a boost. In 1991 the CDE became the Chemical and Biological De-
fence Establishment (CBDE), falling in 1995 under the auspices of an
umbrella organization for several defense research establishments, the
Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA). Most recently, in July